Broader Issues: Kids in the U.S. Justice System Kids in Adult Prisons: Some states allow children as young as eight or nine to be tried as adults, leading to youth incarceration in adult facilities, which is dangerous and harmful. Racial Disparities: Youth of color, especially Native American and Black youth, are disproportionately represented in juvenile detention, highlighting systemic bias. "ICE Kids": Children, including some with DACA ties, have been held in facilities like Cowlitz, raising concerns about family separation and the "adultification" of youth to justify harsh treatment. https://www.cato.org/publications/immigration-research-policy-brief/dreamer-incarceration-rate# https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/sep/04/donald-trump-what-is-daca-dreamers https://www.uscis.gov/DACA https://www.americanimmigrationcouncil.org/fact-sheet/dream-act-overview/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deferred_Action_for_Childhood_Arrivals#Origin Human Impact: Many Dreamers consider the U.S. their only home, having grown up there, making threats of deportation devastating. Systemic Problems: The issues highlight broader concerns about immigration policy, the rights of non-citizens, and the fairness of the juvenile justice system, especially for marginalized youth --- On a cold, rainy night last November, Bastian Rodriguez spent the first hours of his 18th birthday inside an Immigration and Customs Enforcement van. Rodriguez was aging out of the Cowlitz County Youth Services Center, a juvenile jail in Longview, Wash., and was on his way to the Northwest ICE Processing Center, a privately run immigration detention facility for adults in Tacoma. He had already spent more than two years in ICE custody. “These adult people are going to beat my ass,” he told me he worried as the van wound its way toward Tacoma. “I know it’s your birthday, so I’m going to be cool with you,” the guard driving the van told Rodriguez, making a pit stop at McDonalds to buy him a Big Mac. As they continued, Rodriguez sat in the back eating, afraid of what would happen to him in the big prison filled with people much older than him. Until recently, Rodriguez’s long detention under ICE control had been rare for someone his age. https://www.aclu.org/news/immigrants-rights/the-ice-kids Abraxas Academy in Pennsylvania was privately operated and its administrators declined UW’s request, but Cowlitz and NORCOR, the detention center in Oregon, sent Godoy copies of the contracts they’d signed with ICE. “The more I scraped the surface and gathered information, the more I was like, ‘Oh my god, how is this happening?’” she said. All three facilities had agreed to detain minors for ICE alongside their existing population of sentenced juveniles in exchange for federal payments. ----\ 50 Years after the Dream: Why Are We Filling our Jails with Kids of Color? https://www.aclu.org/news/criminal-law-reform/50-years-after-dream-why-are-we-filling-our-jails-kids-color -------- For far too many Black, Latino and Native American kids, the justice system is like quicksand: once you step in, it pulls you in deeper and deeper. Take Luis, who was 14 the first time he was placed on probation. His big offense? Asking another student for $2, and having the student report him for bullying. Once he was under correctional control, it became difficult for Luis to escape the pipeline. A few months later, Luis was hanging out with some friends when one of them chose to steal a few items from a store. Luis was arrested alongside his friend, charged with violating probation, and shipped off to a juvenile facility. The facility was horrible for Luis. He had never fought in the street, but he learned to fight in the facility. They tried to medicate him without his parents' permission. And when he came home, there were no support services in place. Given everything we know about the school-to-prison pipeline, what happened next to Luis shouldn't surprise us. The experience of being incarcerated changed him, and since his release Luis has been rearrested several times and now is incarcerated in an adult prison. --- \ https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/aug/06/physical-sexual-abuse-pregnant-women-children-immigration-centers A new report has found hundreds of reported cases of human rights abuses in US immigration detention centers. The alleged abuses uncovered include deaths in custody, physical and sexual abuse of detainees, mistreatment of pregnant women and children, inadequate medical care, overcrowding and unsanitary living conditions, inadequate food and water, exposure to extreme temperatures, denial of access to attorneys, and child separation. The report, compiled by the office of Senator Jon Ossoff, a Democrat representing Georgia, noted it found 510 credible reports of human rights abuses since 20 January 2025. ----- The report from Ossoff’s office was first reported by NBC News. The DHS assistant secretary Tricia McLaughlin said in an email to NBC News in response to the report: “any claim that there are subprime conditions at Ice detention centers are false.” She claimed all detainees in Ice custody received “proper meals, medical treatment, and have opportunities to communicate with lawyers and their family members”. Meredyth Yoon, an immigration attorney and litigation director at Asian Americans Advancing Justice-Atlanta, told NBC News she met with the woman who miscarried, a 23-year-old Mexican national. “The detainee who miscarried described to Yoon witnessing and experiencing ‘horrific’ and ‘terrible conditions’, the attorney said, including allegations of overcrowding, people forced to sleep on the floor, inadequate access to nutrition and medical care, as well as abusive treatment by the guards, lack of information about their case and limited ability to contact their loved ones and legal support,” NBC News reported. DHS denied the allegations. “Regardless of our views on immigration policy, the American people do not support the abuse of detainees and prisoners … it’s more important than ever to shine a light on what’s happening behind bars and barbed wire, especially and most shockingly to children,” Ossoff said in a statement his office issued about the investigation. --------- https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/jul/25/florida-teen-immigration-arrest Immigration agents told a teenage US citizen: ‘You’ve got no rights.’ He secretly recorded his brutal arrest This article is more than 5 months old Video from Kenny Laynez-Ambrosio, 18, puts fresh scrutiny on the harsh tactics used to reach the Trump administration’s ambitious enforcement targets --- Laynez-Ambrosio can also be heard telling officers: “I was born and raised right here.” Still, he was pushed to the ground and says that an officer aimed a stun gun at him. He was subsequently arrested and held in a cell at a Customs and Border Protection (CBP) station for six hours. Audio in the video catches the unidentified officers debriefing and appearing to make light of the stun gun use. “You’re funny, bro,” one officer can be overheard saying to another, followed by laughter. Another officer says, “They’re starting to resist more now,” to which an officer replies: “We’re going to end up shooting some of them.” Later in the footage, the officers move on to general celebration – “Goddamn! Woo! Nice!” – and talk of the potential bonus they’ll be getting: “Just remember, you can smell that [inaudible] $30,000 bonus.” It is unclear what bonus they are referring to. Donald Trump’s recent spending bill includes billions of additional dollars for Ice that could be spent on recruitment and retention tactics such as bonuses. Laynez-Ambrosio said his two friends were eventually transferred to the Krome detention center in Miami. He believes they were released on bail and are awaiting a court hearing, but said it has been difficult to stay in touch with them. ----- NATO DIANA's Estonian Accelerator: a hub for defence innovation in Tallinn and Tartu NATO DIANA https://www.diana.nato.int/connect/nato-dianas-estonian-accelerator-a-hub-for-defence-innovation-in-tallinn-and-tartu.html --------- AI on the Battlefield: Top Experts Gather at TalTech to Debate the Future of Military Decision Making 11.11.2025 Krõõt Nõges|Head of Media Relations| kroot.noges@taltech.ee The future of military decision-making and the role of technology in new-generation conflicts will be the core focus of the international EstMilTech 2026 conference, hosted by Tallinn University of Technology (TalTech) on January 14–15, 2026. https://taltech.ee/en/news/ai-battlefield-top-experts-gather-taltech-debate-future-military-decision-making ---------- https://www.e-resident.gov.ee/blog/posts/defence-tech-estonia/ defence tech in focus: estonia hosts its first defence week in 2025 Maya Middlemiss • Sep 22, 2025 • 10 min read Defence tech is evolving fast, and Estonia is emerging as one of its most dynamic hubs in Europe countermeasures to AI-powered detection systems, the race to secure Europe’s borders is no longer theoretical. It’s happening right now. Against this backdrop, Estonia is hosting its first Defence Week from 22-26 September 2025. This event will bring together founders, policymakers, and security experts to exchange ideas and showcase solutions. For entrepreneurs, the event highlights Estonia’s growing role as a hub for defence tech startups and dual-use innovation. Many international founders already choose to base their companies in Estonia through e-⁠Residency. They’re drawn by its NATO-level security environment and world-leading digital infrastructure. As Ukrainian e-resident Denys Sobchyshak, CEO of Vidar Systems, put it: “Every time I come to Tallinn, the discussions get bigger, more urgent, and more focused. Estonia makes things happen quickly.” ---------- Mojahedin-e-Khalq (MEK) , Iran itself, however, designates the IRGC (Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps) as a terrorist entity The Communist Party of Iran (CPI), founded in 1983 and predominantly active in Kurdish areas. The Organization of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class (Peykar), a Marxist splinter group from the People's Mujahedin of Iran (PMoI). The Labour Party of Iran (Toufan), a Hoxhaist communist party with leadership exiled in Germany People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (MEK/PMOI), which was previously listed as a terrorist organization by the U.S. but was delisted in 2012. The MEK is now a prominent exiled political opposition group that advocates for a democratic Iran, and its backers describe it as a viable alternative government ---- https://en.granma.cu/mundo/2025-01-10/cognitive-warfare-or-human-hacking Cognitive warfare, or human hacking Cognitive warfare operations promote and stimulate aversive emotions, thoughts, and moods that can escalate to high levels of intensity Author: Raúl Antonio Capote | informacion@granmai.cu january 10, 2025 07:01:30 Photo: Caricature by Moro The nature of warfare has changed radically. This may seem too categorical a statement, but it is a reality defined by the nature of today's conflicts, shaped by the dizzying evolution of the technological revolution. Military Information Support Operations (MISO), aimed at influencing “enemy” audiences, their emotions, behaviors and motivations, are part of this way of conducting conflict. The term, defined by the Pentagon, replaced PSYOP (Psychological Operation) in 2010, which had been used since World War II. According to the document Warfighting 2040, Cognitive Warfare (CW) “is based on the use of disinformation and propaganda techniques designed to psychologically exhaust the recipients of information.” However, the possibilities of this type of warfare are expanding every day with the advancement of information and disinformation techniques, but especially with the advancement of NBIC (Nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science). It is no longer a matter of dominating the five main scenarios of conventional or unconventional warfare (air, land, sea, space, and cyber); now the confrontation is also taking place in the human domain, so that victory will depend on the ability to impose a desired behavior on a selected audience. ---- But this is not entirely new. The work of the U.S. special services to control the human mind began with projects like MKUltra. Also known as Artichoke, this project was a Dantean, chilling reality: experiments in the field of the human unconscious, drug testing, drugs, brain implants, surgery, lobotomy... a whole storehouse of horrors. The task of conducting MKUltra fell in 1953 to the Office of Scientific Intelligence (OSI), an entity founded in 1948 that came to involve more than 30 universities and scientific centers in the country. Among the fields of interest in the research were the development of paranoia, the production of amnesia, the provocation of illogical thoughts through the use of drugs, the manipulation of violence, the study of the effect of ultrasound on human conglomerates, as well as studies on cancer and leukemia. At present, the NBIC revolution is being used to control human beings, turning them into a weapon against themselves. Traditional conditioning techniques have been enhanced and brought to a state of near perfection thanks to the capabilities of neuro-weapons. It is a competition to appropriate our senses, our way of seeing the world, to turn us into puppets in the hands of a select elite that seeks to perpetuate its privileges without spending a bullet. Source: Cognitive Warfare. Unconventional Warfare -------- https://archive.smallwarsjournal.com/taxonomy/term/545 Indigenous Approach Podcast: Psychological Operations - Narrative Sat, 01/30/2021 - 1:36pm Col. Jeremy Mushtare is the commander of the 8th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne) located at Fort Bragg, NC. 8th POG (A) consists of 3rd PSYOP Battalion (A), 9th PSYOP Battalion (A), and a Headquarters and Headquarters Company. 3rd POB (A) supports operations around the globe with specialized expeditionary teams tailor fit to execute print, A/V, and broadcast activities. The unit also houses the Information Warfare Center and other capabilities designed to support our forces or compete with adversaries from the CONUS base. 9th POB (A) is the PSYOP Regiment’s National Mission Force (NMF) which is responsible for supporting Special Mission Units (SMU) across the world. Members of the PSYOP NMF are deployed specifically to address the most serious threats to U.S. National Security. Dr. Ajit Maan is a narrative strategist focused on national security and international relations. She is founder and CEO of the U.S. based think-tank Narrative Strategies, Affiliated Faculty at George Mason University, member of the Brain Trust of the Weaponized Narrative Initiative of Arizona State University, author of Internarrative Identity: Placing the Self, Counter-Terrorism: Narrative Strategies, and co-editor of Soft Power on Hard Problems: Strategic Influence in Irregular Warfare. Her most recently published book is Plato’s Fear. Lieutenant Colonel (Ret. ---- Brian Steed is an instructor of military history at the U.S. Army’s Command and General Staff College. Having served in the Middle East for more than eight and a half years as a Foreign Area Officer, he is both a scholar and practitioner of cross-cultural influence. Published works include, among others, ISIS: An Introduction and Guide to the Islamic State and Bees and Spiders: Applied Cultural Awareness and the Art of Cross-Cultural Influence. Spotify: https://open.spotify.com/episode/7keQVZOZ9VNWxwwqtqwj5Z Apple Podcasts: https://t.co/kQMUr4FONu Youtube: https://t.co/mpVD5IV0Qw -------- https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391704397_Cognitive_warfare_-_the_human_mind_as_the_new_battlefield The rise of cognitive warfare has reshaped modern conflict by positioning the human mind as a key battleground. This paper presents a detailed framework for understanding cognitive warfare, distinguishing it from related concepts, including information and psychological warfare. We emphasised the use of advanced technologies, such as AI and neuroscience, to target perception, decision-making, and social cohesion as key methods in executing cognitive warfare. The primary objective of the research was to investigate the socioeconomic , cultural, and psychological vulnerabilities that render specific individuals and communities more susceptible to cognitive operations. The research further investigates the tools and techniques used in cognitive operations alongside strategies for countering their effects. Additionally, it addresses phenomena like captology, which influences cognitive processes without direct manipulation. The findings underscore the critical need for interdisciplinary approaches to confront these challenges and enhance national security, resilience, and policymaking. -=-------------- https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA378002.pdf --------- https://sofsupport.org/cognitive-warfare-to-dominate-and-redefine-adversary-realities-implications-for-u-s-special-operations-forces/ Cognitive Warfare to Dominate and Redefine Adversary Realities: Implications for U.S. Special Operations Forces October 13, 2025 , 2025 DISCLAIMER: The views expressed in this work are entirely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views, policy, or position of the U.S. Government, Department of War, United States Special Operations Command, or the Joint Special Operations University. This work was cleared for public release; distribution is unlimited. Part 1: Cognitive Warfare Foundations Consider the power to dictate who is perceived as “right” or “wrong” in conflicts like the Russia–Ukraine War or Israeli–Gazan conflict, or to reshape the outcome of a nation’s election in the minds of its citizens. Imagine the U.S. and its allies not merely swaying opinions but reconstructing the very reality in which adversaries like North Korea, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), Iran, or violent extremists make judgments, aligning their perceptions with U.S. strategic objectives. ---- It is necessary to differentiate cognitive warfare from established concepts such as psychological operations (PSYOPS, sometimes referred to in defense circles as military information support operations [MISO]), information warfare, cyber warfare, and hybrid warfare.⁴ Claverie and du Cluzel write: “Cognitive [w]arfare is where all the elements of information warfare—including the operational aspects of psychology and neurosciences, based on systemics and complexity— combine for military action. It sits at the intersection of two operational fields that hitherto were managed separately: PSYOPS and influence operations (soft power) on the one hand, and cyber operations (cyber defence) intended to degrade or destroy physical information assets on the other. This intersection makes it possible to unite concepts and points of view from different scientific, military, or intelligence communities of interest, bringing about an interdisciplinary approach to how technologies impact humankind.”⁵ See Figure 1. Figure 1. Differences between cognitive warfare and PSYOPS, including, in broad terms, actual psychological operations and other non- kinetic actions such as influence operations and civil–military cooperation. Source: Author (data from Bernard Claverie and François du Cluzel, “The Cognitive Warfare Concept,” NATO Innovation Hub for Allied Command Transformation, 2022, https://innovationhub-act.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/CW-article-Claverie-du-Cluzel-final_0.pdf ) “Cognitive warfare is now with us. The main challenge is that it is essentially invisible; all you see is its impact, and by then … it is often too late.” Cognitive warfare is now seen as its own domain in modern warfare. Alongside the four military domains defined by their environment (land, maritime, air and space) and the cyber domain that connects them all, recent events that upset the geopolitical balance of power have shown how this new warfare domain has emerged and been put to use. It operates on a global stage, since humankind as a whole is now digitally connected. It uses information technology and the tools, machines, networks and systems that come with it. Its target is clear: our intelligence, to be considered both individually and as a group ---------- Bernard Claverie is a University Professor, Honorary Director and Founder of the Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Cognitique at the Bordeaux Institut Polytechnique and a researcher at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) — UMR5218 — Bordeaux University. 2 - François du Cluzel is a retired Lieutenant-Colonel of the French Army and Head of Innovative Projects within Allied Command Transformation Innovation Hub in Norfolk Virginia. --- the object is to dominate, establish one’s superiority, or even conquer and destroy. Today these practices have reached such a level that political leaders can no longer ignore their importance. The term « Cognitive Warfare » has been used with that meaning in the United States since 2017, to describe in particular the modes of action available to a state or influence group seeking to “manipulate an enemy or its citizenry’s cognition mechanisms in order to weaken, penetrate, influence or even subjugate or destroy it”. While that broad mission has always formed a part of the art of war, here we have a new discipline that requires further elucidation. It is the combination of the newer cyber techniques associated with information warfare and the human components of soft power, along with the manipulation aspects of psychological operations (or PSYOPS). They usually involve a biased presentation of a reality, usually digitally altered, intended to favour one’s own interests. New communication tools now offer infinite possibilities, opening the way to new methods and new objectives. This increased complexity should encourage potential victims to develop a constant posture of resilience, even if in most cases, victims usually realize they were attacked too late. This approach to Cognitive Warfare has caught the eye of armed forces across the world and includes both strategic and operational aspects, some of which are more developed than others. It is not currently covered by established ethical considerations and doctrines. Cognitive Warfare expanded considerably with the arrival of digital strategic decision-making assistants, new operational domains and the invasion of big data and analytics, in the realm of information, wargaming and the conduct of operations. ------- James Giordano is a professor in the Georgetown Department of Neurology in Washington D.C. and the Director of the Neuroethics Studies Programme at the O’Neill-Pellegrino Center for Clinical Bioethics. 4 David Goldfein was a former general and Chief of Staff of the US Air Force, member of the Joint Staff and a military advisor in the Council of National Security and to the Secretary of Defense and President of the United States. 5 Steve Banach is a colonel in the US Army and former director of the School of Advanced Military Studies (SAMS) at Leavenworth (Kansas, USA). 6 Vincent R. Stewart is a former Lieutenant General of the Marine Corps and Director of the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA). 7 Gilles Desclaux is a retired Lieutenant General in the French Air Force. He commanded air operations during the war in Lybia and is now a frequent contributor to C2 work being conducted in industry. 8 As defined by Kelly (2011): all the information available to human brains. Dean S. Hartley III Director of Hartley Consulting at Oak Ridge (TN, USA) and honorary president of a number of other consulting firms. 10 Kenneth O. Jobson is a psychiatrist and the creator of the International Psychopharmacology Algorithm, and is particularly active in biotechnologies. ------ Preparing the Future with Mobile Cyber Capabilities. NBIC is a scientific project bringing together four heretofore distinct domains: nanotechnology (nano-robot technology, nano-sensors, nanostructures, energy...), biotechnology (bio-genomic technology, CRISPR-Cas9, neuropharmacology...), information technology (computer science, microelectronics...) and cognitive technology (cognitive science and neuropsychology). The project was formalized with the encouragement of the US Defence Department in 2002 and subsequently taken up by major international institutions and a number of nations, to bring together future technologies. ------ Claverie, B. (2021). Des théories pour la cognition : Différences et Complémentarité des Paradigmes. Paris (France): L’Harmattan. Cole, A., Le Guyader, H., (2020). Cognitive : a 6th Domain of Operations. Norfolk (VA, USA) : Innovation Hub, NATO ACT Edition. Devilliers, L. (2021). "Désinformation : les Armes de l’Intelligence Artificielle". Pour La Science, 523, 26-33. Remanjon, J. (2021), “ Le cerveau sera-t-il l’ultime champ de bataille?”, Revue de la Défense Nationale. Hartley, D.S.III, Jobson, K.O. (2021). Cognitive Superiority: Information to Power. New-York (NY, USA): Springer. Kelly, K. (2011). What technology wants. New York (NY, USA): Penguin Books. ISBN: 978-0143120179. Roco, M.C., Bainbridge, W.S. (2003). Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science. New-York (NY, USA) : Springer-Verlag. Underwood K. (2017). "Cognitive Warfare Will Be Deciding Factor in Battle: Lt. Gen. Stewart's remarks at DoDIIS17". Signal, The cyber edge. https://www.afcea.org/content/cognitive-warfare- will-be-deciding-factor- battle. https://youtu.be/Nm-lVjRjLD4. Wall, T. (2010). "U.S. Psychological Warfare and Civilian Targeting". Peace Review 22, 3: 288– 294 ----------- These contagions thrive in digital environments where information overload pushes users toward mental shortcuts¹⁵ where echo chambers¹⁶ reinforce existing views and social media algorithms prioritize engagement over accuracy. Psychographic targeting, enabled by troves of user data, allows these cognitive viruses to be tailored with precision¹⁷ to individual psychological profiles.¹⁸ The result is a potent blend of personalization, repetition, and emotional provocation that erodes critical thinking and reshapes the architecture of public perception. Drawing inspiration from quantum mechanics, one might consider a state of “narrative superposition” where multiple contradictory narratives exist simultaneously. The collapse of shared reality’s “waveform” occurs, forcing the adoption of a dominant, desired reality. This parallels work in quantum cognition.¹⁹ Manipulating perception itself can occur through virtual reality, augmented reality, or even targeted neuro-stimulation. While theoretical, these “sensory override” realities could directly influence an individual’s experience and understanding of the world.²⁰ ---- deployment of “cognitive antibodies,” automated systems that intelligently detect and flag manipulated content or suspicious narrative patterns in real time.²⁸ Strategic manipulation may not necessarily target societies broadly or groups generically, but rather individuals specifically.²⁹ This form of warfare would rely on constructing detailed psychographic profiles drawn from exhaustive data, online behaviors, biometric indicators, purchase histories, sleep patterns, even vocal tonality.³⁰ These profiles would then be used to tailor ideological messaging in ways that bypass conscious resistance, tapping into subconscious vulnerabilities, emotional needs, and cognitive biases. See Figure 3. --------- gy advance, it is reasonable to assume that the tools available for manipulating perception will become increasingly powerful. The ability to simulate convincing yet deceptive realities will increase exponentially. The Dormio device is a wearable system developed by scientists at MIT to interact with dreams. It is worn on the hand and uses sensors to track a user’s physiological signs to detect the onset of sleep then deliver targeted audio cues to influence the content of dreams in the hypnagogic state (Source: “Dormio: Interfacing with Dreams,” MIT Media Lab, accessed September 22, 2025, https:// www.media.mit.edu/projects/sleep-creativity/overview/). Photo by Oscar Rosello. Proactive epistemic sovereignty safeguards are crucial and involve the implementation of national policies and investment in domestic epistemic infrastructures, such as public broadcasters and independent research institutions. Simultaneously, international norm development for cognitive security will become increasingly necessary, aiming to establish clear norms, agreements, and “red lines” for acceptable and unacceptable cognitive influence operations, including developing shared attribution mechanisms for malign activities. ---------- Implications for U.S. Special Operations Forces U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF) are currently not trained, organized, or equipped for a future dominated by cognitive warfare. While U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), theater special operations commands (TSOCs), and their subordinate units have command surgeons focused on physical health, for example, they lack neuroscientists, behavioral scientists, cognitive psychologists, or cognitive engineers who could help understand, shape, project, and defend against operations aimed at the human mind.³⁹ Operational teams deploy with state-of-the-art satellite communications equipment to relay battlefield information across continents, yet they do not possess the equivalent “cognitive toolkits,” such as advanced brain-computer interfaces, intelligent psychological monitoring systems like smart sensor bracelets that track emotional states in real time, or tools to disrupt adversarial narratives.⁴⁰ This personal erosion of objectivity mirrors broader vulnerabilities, where cognitive warfare exploits human biases—such as the U.S.’s “WEIRD” (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic)⁴¹ psychological profile—to sow doubt and division, leaving forces like SOF ill-prepared to counter such threats. A small SOF team deployed overseas might find itself unknowingly outmaneuvered by malign narratives, deepfake videos portraying U.S. troops committing atrocities, viral rumors discrediting local leaders aligned with the U.S., or psychological campaigns designed to fracture trust within allied forces. -------- Cognitive warfare has the potential to redefine not only adversarial realities but also the operational effectiveness of U.S. SOF. Concepts ranging from cognitive contagions and personalized influence to counter-cognitive defenses and SOF-specific offensive applications underscore a reality: The battlefield of the future is increasingly mental. By integrating cognitive warfare into SOF’s training, equipping, and organizational frameworks, the U.S. can leverage the unique capabilities of special operators to defend against malign influence and offensively shape adversary perceptions, ensuring strategic dominance in the cognitive domain. Admittedly, the human mind remains a “black box;” (46) and many ideas presented here are speculative, rooted in the logical extrapolation of current technological and cognitive trends. Some of these ideas admittedly seem far-fetched, the things of science fiction. With that thinking, one option might be to dismiss the concepts outlined above. By not exploring possibilities now, however, we ensure that America and its partners remain steps behind malign actors that are already experimenting in this space. For these reasons, America should instead take the possibilities in cognitive warfare seriously, and experiment now. Resilience in defense and creativity in cognitive warfare offense may well define the future relevance and dominance of America, including its most agile military assets. About the Author Jeremiah “Lumpy” Lumbaca, PhD, is a retired U.S. Army Green Beret and current professor of irregular warfare, counterterrorism, and special operations with the Department of Defense. He can be found on X/Twitter @LumpyAsia. Notes 1. Bernard Claverie and François du Cluzel, “The Cognitive Warfare Concept,” NATO Innovation Hub for Allied Command Transformation, 2022, https://innovationhub-act.org/ wp-content/uploads/2023/12/CW-article-Claverie-du-Cluzel-final_0.pdf. 2. “Cognitive Warfare,” NATO Allied Command Transformation, accessed July 3, 2025, https://www.act.nato.int/activities/cognitive-warfare/. 3. Robin Burda, “Cognitive Warfare as Part of Society: Never-Ending Battle for Minds” in Paper Series: Information-Based Behavioural Influencing and Western Practice, eds. Arthur Laudrain, Laura Jasper, and Michel Rademaker (The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies, 2023), https://hcss.nl/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/04- Cognitive_Warfare_as_Part_of_Society__Never_Ending_Battle_for_Minds.pdf. 4. Johns Hopkins University and Imperial College London, “Countering Cognitive Warfare: Awareness and Resilience,” NATO Review, May 20, 2021, https://www.nato.int/docu/ review/articles/2021/05/20/countering-cognitive-warfare-awareness-and-resilience/ index.html. 5. Claverie and du Cluzel, “The Cognitive Warfare Concept.” 6. Martin C. Libicki, What Is Information Warfare? (National Defense University, 1995), https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/ADA367662. 7. Alina Bârgăoanu and Flavia Durach, “Cognitive Warfare: Understanding the Threat,” in Routledge Handbook of Disinformation and National Security, eds. Rubén Arcos, Irene Chiru, and Cristina Ivan (Routledge, 2023): 221–236, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003190363. 8. Sarah Bradshaw and Philip N. Howard, “The Global Organization of Social Media Disinformation Campaigns,” Journal of International Affairs 71, no. 1.5 (2018): 23–32. 9. Hany Farid, “Creating, Using, Misusing, and Detecting Deep Fakes,” Journal of Online Trust and Safety 1, no. 4 (2022): 1–33, https://doi.org/10.54501/jots.v1i4.56. 10. James Giordano, ed., Neurotechnology in National Security and Defense: Practical Considerations, Neuroethical Concerns (CRC Press, 2014), https://doi.org/10.1201/b17454. 11. Ying-Yu Lin, “China’s Cognitive Warfare Against Taiwan and Taiwan’s Countermeasures,” Taiwan Strategists, no. 20, 37–54, https://www.airitilibrary.com/Article/Detail? DocID=P20220613001-N202312210022-00003; Michael J. Mazarr et al., Hostile Social Manipulation: Present Realities and Emerging Trends (RAND Corporation, 2019), https:// www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2713.html. 12. Claverie and du Cluzel, “The Cognitive Warfare Concept.” 13. P.W. Singer and Emerson T. Brooking, LikeWar: The Weaponization of Social Media (Eamon Dolan/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2018); Anton Kühberger “The Framing of Decisions: A New Look at Old Problems,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 62, no. 2 (1995): 230–240, https://doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1995.1046. 14. Cass R. Sunstein, On Rumors: How Falsehoods Spread, Why We Believe Them, and What Can Be Done (Princeton University Press, 2014). 15. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking, Fast and Slow (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011). 16. Eli Pariser, The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You (Penguin Press, 2011). 17. Muhammed Haroon et al., “YouTube, The Great Radicalizer? Auditing and Mitigating Ideological Biases in YouTube Recommendations,” March 20, 2022, https:// doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2203.10666. 18. The Great Hack, directed by Karim Amer and Jehane Noujaim (2019, Noujaim Films and The Othrs), Netflix. 19. Jerome R. Busemeyer and Peter D. Bruza, Quantum Models of Cognition and Decision (Cambridge University Press, 2012), https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511997716. 20. Michael Madary and Thomas K. Metzinger, “Real Virtuality: A Code of Ethical Conduct. Recommendations for Good Scientific Practice and the Consumers of VR-Technology,” Front. Robot. AI, no. 3 (2016): 1–23. 21. Laura Garcia and Tommy Shane, “A Guide to Prebunking: A Promising Way to Inoculate Against Misinformation,” First Draft News, last reviewed June 29, 2021, archived August 25, 2025, at https://web.archive.org/web/20240715231600/https://firstdraftnews.org/ articles/a-guide-to-prebunking-a-promising-way-to-inoculate-against- misinformation/#expand. 22. William J. McGuire, “Some Contemporary Approaches,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 1 (1964): 191–229, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60052-0. 23. Eliza Mackintosh and Edward Kiernan, “Finland Is Winning the War on Fake News. What It’s Learned May Be Crucial to Western Democracy,” CNN, May 2015, https:// edition.cnn.com/interactive/2019/05/europe/finland-fake-news-intl/. 24. “Media Literacy and Education in Finland,” Finland Toolbox, March 12, 2024, https:// toolbox.finland.fi/life-society/media-literacy-and-education-in-finland/. 25. Benjamin Laufer and Helen Nissenbaum, “Algorithmic Displacement of Social Trust,” in Optimizing for What? Algorithmic Amplification and Society (Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University, 2023), https://ssrn.com/abstract=4734544. 26. Ferenc Huszár et al., “Algorithmic Amplification of Politics on Twitter,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119, no. 1 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.2025334119. 27. Tyrone C. Gubler, “The White-Hat Bot: A Novel Botnet Defense Strategy” (master’s thesis, Air Force Institute of Technology, 2012), https://scholar.afit.edu/etd/1113. 28. AIT Staff Writer, “Adversarial Machine Learning in Detecting Inauthentic Behavior on Social Platforms,” AIThority, May 7, 2025, https://aithority.com/machine-learning/ adversarial-machine-learning-in-detecting-inauthentic-behavior-on-social-platforms/. 29. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power (PublicAffairs, 2019). 30. Michal Kosinski et al., “Private Traits and Attributes Are Predictable from Digital Records of Human Behavior,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, no. 15 (2013), https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1218772110. 31. James Paul Gee, “What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy,” Computers in Entertainment 1, no. 1 (2003): 20, https://doi.org/10.1145/950566.950595. 32. Chris Dede, “Immersive Interfaces for Engagement and Learning,” Science 323, no. 5910 (2009): 66–69, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167311. 33. Miles Brundage et al., “The Malicious Use of Artificial Intelligence: Forecasting, Prevention, and Mitigation,” Scholarly Works – Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities (Apollo – University of Cambridge Repository, 2018), https:// doi.org/10.17863/CAM.22520. 34. Manoel Horta Ribeiro et al., “Auditing Radicalization Pathways on YouTube,” paper presented at the Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, January 2020, 131–141, https://doi.org/10.1145/3351095.3372879. 35. Onora O’Neill, host, The Reith Lectures: A Question of Trust, BBC, 2002, https:// www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00ghvd8/episodes/player. 36. Jane R. Garrison et al., “Monitoring What Is Real: The Effects of Modality and Action on Accuracy and Type of Reality Monitoring Error,” Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior 87 (2017): 108–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.cortex.2016.06.018. 37. Lucas Kello, The Virtual Weapon and International Order (Yale University Press, 2017), https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1trkjd1. 38. Marie Battiste, “Cognitive Imperialism,” in Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory, ed. Michael A. Peters (Springer Singapore, 2017), 183–188, https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-588-4_501. 39. Andrew MacDonald and Ryan Ratcliffe, “Cognitive Warfare: Maneuvering in the Human Dimension,” Proceedings 149, no. 4 (2023): 1,442, https://www.usni.org/magazines/ proceedings/2023/april/cognitive-warfare-maneuvering-human-dimension. 40. Josh Baughman and Peter W. Singer, “China Gears Up for Cognitive Warfare,” Defense One, April 7, 2023, https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2023/04/china-gears-cognitive- warfare/384876/; Brian Godwin, “From Perception to Protection: Countering Cognitive Warfare in the U.S. Army” (master’s thesis, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 2023), https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/api/collection/p4013coll2/id/4112/ download. 41. Joseph Henrich, The Weirdest People in the World: How the West Became Psychologically Peculiar and Particularly Prosperous (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2020). 42. Statement Before the United States Senate Committee on Armed Services (2024) (statement of Commander General Michael E. Langley, U.S. Africa Command). 43. Babak Taghvaee, “Iran’s Use of Psychological Warfare Against Its Adversaries and Strategies for Deterrence,” Middle East Quarterly 32, no. 3 (2025), https:// www.meforum.org/meq/irans-use-of-psychological-warfare-against-its-adversaries- and-strategies-for-deterrence. 44. Elina Treyger, Joe Cheravitch, and Raphael S. Cohen, Russian Disinformation Efforts on Social Media (RAND Corporation, 2022), https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/ RR4373z2.html. 45. Austin Branch et al., “America Is Being Out-Gunned in Cognitive Warfare,” Information Professionals Association, June 23, 2025, https://information-professionals.org/america- is-being-out-gunned-in-cognitive-warfare/. 46. “Prying Open the Black Box of the Brain,” U.S. National Science Foundation, June 12, 2013, https://www.nsf.gov/news/prying-open-black-box-brain. --------- https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/hrw/2005/en/95118 During Saddam Hussein's last year in power, some Iranians held in Abu Ghraib prison were repatriated to Iran in exchange for Iraqi prisoners of war (POWs). These were dissident members of the MKO who had been sent by the organization for "safekeeping" in Abu Ghraib.6 The release of these prisoners in 2002-2003 provided a direct window into conditions inside the MKO camps that was previously inaccessible to the outside world. Human Rights Watch interviewed five of these former MKO members who were held in Abu Ghraib prison. Their testimonies, together with testimonies collected from seven other former MKO members, paint a grim picture of how the organization treated its members, particularly those who held dissenting opinions or expressed an intent to leave the organization. The former MKO members reported abuses ranging from detention and persecution of ordinary members wishing to leave the organization, to lengthy solitary confinements, severe beatings, and torture of dissident members. The MKO held political dissidents in its internal prisons during the 1990s and later turned over many of them to Iraqi authorities, who held them in Abu Ghraib. In one case, Mohammad Hussein Sobhani was held in solitary confinement for eight-and-a-half years inside the MKO camps, from September 1992 to January 2001. The witnesses reported two cases of deaths under interrogation. Three dissident members – Abbas Sadeghinejad, Ali Ghashghavi, and Alireza Mir Asgari – witnessed the death of a fellow dissident, Parviz Ahmadi, inside their prison cell in Camp Ashraf. Abbas Sadeghinejad told Human Rights Watch that he also witnessed the death of another prisoner, Ghorbanali Torabi, after Torabi was returned from an interrogation session to a prison cell that he shared with Sadeghinejad. The MKO's leadership consists of the husband and wife team of Masoud and Maryam Rajavi. Their marriage in 1985 was hailed by the organization as the beginning of a permanent "ideological revolution."7 Various phases of this "revolution" include: divorce by decree of married couples, regular writings of self-criticism reports, renunciation of sexuality, and absolute mental and physical dedication to the leadership.8 The level of devotion expected of members was in stark display in 2003 when the French police arrested Maryam Rajavi in Paris. In protest, ten MKO members and sympathizers set themselves on fire in various European cities; two of them subsequently died.9 Former members cite the implementation of the "ideological revolution" as a major source of the psychological and physical abuses committed against the group's members. At present, the MKO is listed as a terrorist organization by the U.S. State Department and several European governments. The MKO's leadership is engaged in an extensive campaign aimed at winning support from Western politicians in order to have the designation of a terrorist organization removed.10 -------- For a comprehensive history of the organization, see Ervand Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989). [2] Camp Ashraf is located near the city of al-Khalis, north of Baghdad. [3] Human Rights Watch e-mail interview with U.S. military officials, March 10, 2005. [4] According to U.S. military sources, twenty-eight members were repatriated in December 2004, thirteen in January 2005, 100 on March 3, 2005, and 132 on March 9, 2005. [5] "US grants protection for anti-Tehran group in Iraq," Reuters, 26 July, 2004. [6] Former MKO members who were held in Abu Ghraib prison told Human Rights Watch that their cell doors bore a plaque with "Mojahedin Safekeeping" [Amanat-e Mojahedin] written on it. [7] Mojahed, No. 241, April 4, 1985. Mojahed is the official publication of the MKO, and at the time it appeared weekly. [8] See Masoud Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel (London: Saqi Books, 2004). On self-criticism sessions, see pp. 210-230; on decreeing of divorce, see pgs. 307-311; on renunciation of sexuality, see pages 313-340. Immediately following Masoud and Maryam Rajavi's marriage, the MKO military command issued a directive stating: "In order to carry out your organizational duties under the present circumstances there is an urgent need to strengthen and deepen this ideological revolution. You must pay the necessary price by allocating sufficient time and resources for absorbing related teachings ... " Mojahed, No. 242, April 12, 1985. The Social Division of MKO also issued a directive to the members stating: "To understand this great revolution ... is to understand and gain a deep insight into the greatness of our new leadership, meaning leadership of Masoud and Maryam. It is to believe in them as well as to show ideological and revolutionary obedience of them." Mojahed, No. 242, April 12, 1985. [9] Arifa Akbar, "Human torches mark protest; 10 Iranian exiles become fireballs, two die martyrs," The Independent, July 2, 2003. [10] Maryam Rajavi, "Empower Iran's opposition forces checking the Mullahs," International Herald Tribune, January 28, 2005. Katherine Shrader, "Iranian Group Seeks Legitimacy in U.S.," Associated Press, February 24, 2005. [11] Farhad Javaheri-Yar, Ali Ghashghavi, Mohammad Hussein Sobhani, and Akbar Akbari were repatriated by Iraqi officials to Iran on January 21, 2002. Amir Mowaseghi was repatriated on March 18, 2003. Alireza Mir Asgari was abandoned along the Iran-Iraq border in February 2003. Yasser Ezati left Iraq in June 2004. Abbas Sadeghinejad escaped the MKO military camp on June 20, 2002. [12] Mohammad Reza Eskandari, Tahereh Eskandari, Habib Khorrami, and Karim Haqi. [13] Farhad Javaheri-Yar, Ali Ghashghavi, Mohammad Hussein Sobhani, Akbar Akbari, and Amir Mowaseghi were imprisoned in Abu Ghraib. [14] "For the first time in the history of the Iranian people's liberation struggle, an organization with a monolithic ideology, populist ideals, and a policy of revolutionary armed resistance was founded in September 1965." Mojahedin Khalq Organization Bonyangozaran, downloaded on March 10, 2005, http://www.iran.mojahedin.org/books.htm . See alsoErvand Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press), 1989. [15] Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin, p. 89. [16] Abrahamian, The Iranian Mojahedin, [17] "Iran: Violations of Human Rights 1987-1990," Amnesty International, Index: MDE 13/2/90. [18] "Iran: Political Executions," Amnesty International, December 1988, Index: MDE 13/29/88. See also Ayatollah Montazeri's letters protesting summary executions in 1988, published in his memoirs. Ayatollah Montazeri was Ayatollah Khomeini's heir apparent in 1988. Ayatollah Montazeri, Khaterat, http://www.montazeri.ws/farsi/khaterat/fehrest.htm , last accessed March 18, 2005. [19] Among the most spectacular attacks include the bombing of the IRP headquarters in June 28, 1981 and the assassination of President Mohammad Ali Rajai and Prime Minister Mohammad Javad Bahonar in 1981. [20] "Khomeini's Foes Split," Washington Post, April 4, 1984. [21] Mojahed, No. 240, March 14, 1985. [22] Masoud Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel (London: Saqi Books, 2004), p. 219. Masoud Banisadr is a relative of former president Abolhasan Banisadr. [23] Mojahed, No. 241, April 4, 1985. [24] See footnote 8. [25] Mojahed, No. 242, April 12, 1985. [26] Ibid. [27] "Iran rebels form Iraq-based army," Chicago Sun-Times, June 20, 1987. [28] "Iran accepts UN truce call in eight year war with Iraq," Associated Press, July 19, 1988. [29] Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel, p. 283. [30] "Incursion by rebels threaten cease-fire," The Washington Post, July 30, 1988. [31] "Rebels routed in push for Tehran," The Guardian, September 6, 1988. [32] Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel, p. 292. [33] Mohammad Reza Eskandari, Bar Ma Che Gozasht Khaterat Yek Mojahed (Paris: Kahvaran, 2004), p. 83. [34] Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel, p. 306. [35] The concept of ideological revolution started with the "ideological marriage" of Masoud and Maryam Rajavi in 1985. Subsequently, the organization required all of its members to make an "ideological leap" by cleansing their character. This process required all members to write self-criticism reports outlining their character flaws and past mistakes. See footnote 8. [36] Imam Zaman is the twelfth Shia Imam. According to the Shia Twelver belief, Imam Zaman is the Twelfth Imam in descent from the prophet Mohammad, who went into "occultation" in the Tenth century and will reappear on earth as a messiah at a time of God's choosing. [37] Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel, p. 307. [38] Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel, p. 311. [39] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Farhad Javaheri-Yar, February 3, 2005. [40] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Alireza Mir Asgari, February 10, 2005. [41] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Karim Haqi, February 11, 2005. [42] Human Rights Watch telephone interviews with Mohammad Reza Eskandari and Tahereh Eskandari, February 1, 2005 and February 10, 2005. [43] Banisadr, Memoirs of an Iranian Rebel, p. 388. [44] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Abbas Sadeghinejad, February 14, 2005. Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Ali Ghashghavi, February 9, 2005 and May 6, 2005. Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Alireza Mir Asgari, February 10, 2005. [45] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Abbas Sadeghinejad, February 14, 2005. [46] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Alireza Mir Asgari, February 10, 2005. [47] Mojahed, No. 380, March 2, 1998 (on file with Human Rights Watch). [48] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Abbas Sadeghinejad, February 14, 2005. [49] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Mohammad Hussein Sobhani, February 14, 2005 and May 6, 2005. [50] Ibid. [51] Ibid. [52] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Yasser Ezati, February 9, 2005. [53] Ibid. [54] Ibid. [55] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Farhad Javaheri-Yar, February 3, 2005 and February 25, 2005. [56] Ibid. [57] Ibid. [58] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Ali Ghashghavi, February 9, 2005 and May 6, 2005. [59] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Alireza Mir Asgari, February 10, 2005. [60] Ibid. [61] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Akbar Akbari, February 27, 2005 and May 6, 2005. [62] Ibid. [63] Ibid. [64] Bid. [65] Human Rights Watch telephone interview with Seyd Amir Mowaseghi, February 4, 2005. [66] Ibid. ----------- https://www.goarmysof.army.mil/PO/#:~:text=BENEFITS%20OF%20A%20PSYCHOLOGICAL%20OPERATIONS%20CAREER&text=PSYOP%20Soldiers%20PCS%20less%20than,located%20on%20Fort%20Liberty%2C%20NC. PSYOP Soldiers are assessed and selected for their intellect, critical and analytical thinking skills, adaptability and mental resilience. They analyze operational environments, physical targets and target audiences; advise on psychological effects; plan influence options; develop actions and messages targeting psychological vulnerabilities; deliver optimally timed actions and messages; and assess influence effectiveness. Operating in small, autonomous teams, PSYOP units conduct military information support operations; Department of Defense deception activities; build partner influence capacity; and, when called upon by the President, provide civil authority information support. The PSYOP mission set takes its teams into hostile, denied and politically sensitive environments. PSYOP teams provide strategic, operational, and tactical options to the theater combatant commanders, joint force commanders, or ambassadors that employ them. The array of employment opportunities, combined with the tactical techniques and equipment utilized, define a unit and mission unlike any other on the battlefield. Basic Airborne and Jumpmaster Courses SERE Level C (High Risk) Course Advanced influence skills and techniques Special Operations Military Deception Planner’s Course MISO Program Design and Assessment Course Special Warfare Network Development Course Special Warfare Operational Design Course Live Environment Training (Language Immersion) Advanced Civilian Education Programs Training with Industry (TWI) Program + Many More --------- Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) Information Quality No Fear Act DOD Open Government DOD Plain Writing --- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Baharia Camp Baharia, also known as Dreamland or FOB Volturno, was a U.S. military installation that was just outside the city of Fallujah, Iraq. It was the smaller of two major U.S. military bases maintained just outside the Fallujah city limits, during the Iraq War. ------ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Fallujah#:~:text=The%20camp%20is%20adjacent%20to%20the%20other,firing%20from%20Camp%20Fallujah%2C%20Iraq%20in%202004. Camp Fallujah (formerly known as the MEK (Mujahedin-E Khalq) Compound) is a large compound in Fallujah, Iraq formerly used by the U.S. Army and U.S. Marines from 2004 to 2009 and now used by the Iraqi Ground Forces. ---- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_warfare Part of a series on War (outline) History Military Battlespace Weapons Tactics Operational Strategy Grand strategy Administrative Organization Personnel Logistics Science Law Theory Non-warfare Culture Books Related Lists vte Information warfare (IW) is the battlespace use and management of information and communication technology (ICT) in pursuit of a competitive advantage over an opponent. It is different from cyberwarfare that attacks computers, software, and command control systems. Information warfare is the manipulation of information trusted by a target without the target's awareness so that the target will make decisions against their interest but in the interest of the one conducting information warfare.[1][2] As a result, it is not clear when information warfare begins, ends, and how strong or destructive it is.[3] Information warfare may involve the collection of tactical information, assurance(s) that one's information is valid, spreading of propaganda or disinformation to demoralize or manipulate[4] the enemy and the public, undermining the quality of the opposing force's information, and denial of information-collection opportunities to opposing forces. Information warfare is closely linked to psychological warfare.[5] ---- http://www.koreanlii.or.kr/w/index.php/Cognitive_warfare?ckattempt=1 Cognitive warfare (인지전/認知戰) consists of any military activities designed to affect attitudes and behaviors, by influencing, protecting, or disrupting individual, group, or population level cognition.[1] Cognitive warfare is an extension of information warfare using propaganda and disinformation.[2] Other methods of cognitive warfare include the targeted use of inaudible sound waves (frequency of <20 Hz) and microwaves to incapacitate enemy forces by disrupting the neurological functions of human targets without causing visible injury. According to the U.S. National Institute of Health, infrasound's effect on the human inner ear includes “vertigo, imbalance, intolerable sensations, incapacitation, disorientation, nausea, vomiting, and bowel spasm; and resonances in inner organs, such as the heart." While psychological warfare in the past utilized balloon flyers containing propaganda leaflets and plenty of USB, and radio and TV broadcasts against enemy forces, cognitive warfare differs in that it mainly utilizes various global media and social media. Cognitive warfare also aims to make political leaders and the population of the enemy country give up their will to wage war. In particular, fake information and black propaganda are spread through various media, including social media. As such, cognitive warfare has been referred to as the sixth battlefield, with 'human' as the main target after land, sea, air, cyber, and space.[3] [One sentence tip] 인지전이란 소셜미디어를 포함한 다양한 플랫폼을 통해 허위 정보와 심리적 전술을 사용하여 상대방의 인식을 조작하고 영향을 미치는 전쟁 방식을 말한다. Source: ResearchGate [Caption] 인지전을 다른 유사 형태의 전쟁 개념과의 관련성을 서로 비교한 다이아그램. Source: Conceptual relationship among Cognitive warfare and other types of warfare. ---------- China and Russia spearheading cognitive warfare Originally, cognitive warfare was materialized as a concept related to psychological warfare in socialist countries such as China and Russia. According to a paper titled “The Concept of Cognitive Warfare and Its Implications for South Korea's Defense,” published by the Korea Institute for National Defense Studies, China has emphasized the use of information since the Sun Tzu's Art of War, and information warfare was a key element during the Maoist Revolutionary War. This led to China's “three warfare strategies” (psychological warfare, public opinion warfare, and legal warfare) in the 2000s. Russia's information warfare is based on the concept of “reflexive control,” coined by Lefebvre in the 1960s, and has since evolved into cognitive warfare. Reflexive control refers to “shifting an adversary's decisions to the friendly side's intentions by providing the adversary with a rationale for making decisions. In response, in 2017, the U.S. Army defined cognitive warfare as “non-lethal warfare that undermines and destroys an enemy's offensive warfare and will to fight by manipulating the cognitive mechanisms of combatants and civilians engaged in war or combat,” and began to reorganize its resources and systems. Ukraine-Russia war Social media cognitive warfare was actively utilized by the Ukrainian military in the war. On April 17, 2022, it destroyed a Russian Black Sea Fleet cruiser, the Moscow, with an anti-ship missile, and then shared photos of the moment before it sank with the world via Twitter. Ukrainian President Zelensky also maintains strategic communication with the world on X (formerly Twitter), and Ukrainian military brigade-level combat units use Facebook to communicate major operations and combat achievements. Israel-Hamas war Cognitive warfare is in full swing in the Middle East. Since the start of the Israel's ground war in Gaza, international public opinion has gradually turned against Israel as Hamas has accused the Israeli military of indiscriminate attacks on humanitarian facilities such as hospitals and schools and civilians through social media. In November 2023, Hamas informed the world that the Israeli army had bombed a hospital facility, a humanitarian space, and a general from the Israeli army's Spokesperson's Unit came forward to explain that the Israeli army had attacked a Hamas military facility by showing Hamas's guns and weapons in the basement of the hospital. In this way, the Israeli Spokesperson's Unit (이스라엘 대변인부대) is acting as a “fake news fact-checking death squad. It is a “game-changer” that underscores the legitimacy of the Israeli military's pre-emptive strike.[5] Even when the Israeli army entered Gaza, it posted a message on Twitter (now X) at midnight saying that “ground forces and air forces are attacking Gaza simultaneously." This was widely reported by major media outlets around the world, including the Washington Post and AFP. Hamas then decided that the Israeli army was actually conducting a ground operation and exposed its weapons and troops, including tanks and rockets, hidden in underground facilities, to the surface and deployed them throughout Gaza. Immediately, the Israeli army used reconnaissance satellites and various unmanned aerial vehicles to identify Hamas strongholds and tunnel entrances, mobilized fighter jets, and launched precision strikes with bombs and missiles. The Israeli army also shared these videos in real time on social media. This was done to prevent Hamas from spreading fake news about Israel's misbehavior and overreaction, and to instill fear among Hamas members. Psychological warfare between North and South Korea Cognitive warfare using social media has already begun on the Korean Peninsula. North Korea has recently increased its provocations, including reinstating GPs (frontline guard posts) after declaring its intention to abandon the September 19 inter-Korean military agreement, and in response, South Korea has been broadcasting propaganda loudspeakers to the North, and North Korean defector organizations have been sending leaflets and USBs containing the truth about the Kim family and the reality of South Korea's freedom along with one-dollar bills to North Korean areas, despite the government's urging. [6] In response, North Korea has also been making offensive loudspeaker broadcasts and releasing balloons containing garbage and filth over South Korea. In a similar situation, North Korea is likely to use social media to spread fake news.[7] References ↑ A classic example of cognitive warfare is found in the Bible. In Judges ch.7, when Israel was a tribal nation, the neighboring Midianite and Amalekites attacked Israel. Jehovah chose Gideon, a man of faith, to lead Israel against the enemy. Gideon sent out to the 12 tribes to recruit men and chose 300 men who were willing and able to fight. They prepared trumpets, torches, and empty jars, instead of swords and weapons, as the LORD had commanded. Taking advantage of the darkness of the night, they surrounded the enemy camps and, at Gideon's signal, blew their trumpets, broke their empty jars, held their torches aloft, and shouted, “For the LORD, for Gideon!” The sleeping enemy soldiers were quickly thrown into great confusion and began to flee, striking each other with their swords. Gideon blew the trumpet again, and ordered to chase the enemy to the border. Gideon's 300 men were victorious and unharmed. ↑ NATO General Paolo Ruggiero distinguishes cognitive warfare from other information-related activities by its objectives: "Its goal is not what individuals think, but rather, the way they think." Exponents of cognitive warfare aim to influence human thought, reasoning, sense-making, decision-making, and behavior, through the manipulation of information and use of machine learning structures which distribute information on the internet. ↑ Yoo Yong-won, Cognitive warfare growing in power in actual warfare, Chosun Ilbo. November 30, 2023. ↑ Masakowski, Yvonne, PhD. (April 11, 2022). "Newport Lecture Series: "Artificial Intelligence & Cognitive Warfare" with Yvonne Masakowski". YouTube. ↑ The Israeli Spokesperson's Unit, which consists of reporters, cameramen, and others in full military uniform, provides news to CNN, Fox News, and other internationally influential media outlets and calls out Hamas's false propaganda as fake. For example, Hamas' photos of alleged refugees in Gaza have been exposed as fake news. ↑ For more information on the events surrounding the flyers - including the condemnation message against the flyers addressed by North Korean leader's sister, Kim Yo-jong, the enactment of the anti-flyer law by the Moon Jae-in government and the ruling party (Article 24 (1) iii of the Inter-Korean Relations Development Act 남북관계발전에 관한 법률), and the Constitutional Court's ruling that the provision is unconstitutional, see Balloon to North Korea. ↑ Yang Wook, a research fellow at the Asan Institute for Policy Studies, said, “South Korea should prepare for North Korea's cognitive warfare by creating a government-level white paper on the background and necessity of the suspension of the inter-Korean military agreement and promoting it through social media.” See supra note 3. ---------- Cognitive warfare is an extension of information warfare (IW).Operations in the information environment are traditionally conducted in five core capabilities - electronic warfare (EW), psychological operations (PSYOPs), military deception (MILDEC), operational security (OPSEC), and computer network operations (CNO).[4] Information warfare aims at controlling the flow of information in support of traditional military objectives, mainly to produce lethal effects on the battlefield. According to Masakowski and NATO Gen Ruggiero, whose statements are cited in the footnotes below, cognitive warfare degrades the capacity to know and produce foreknowledge, transforming the understanding and interpretations of situations by individuals and in the mass consciousness, and has multiple agnostic applications including commercial, political and covert IW and CW military operations. The Chinese military refers to operations in the cognitive domain as 'cognitive domain operations (CDO, 认知疆域操作)'. Meanwhile, cyberwarfare (사이버전쟁/網上戰爭) is the use of cyber attacks against an enemy state, causing comparable harm to actual warfare and/or disrupting vital computer systems. Many countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, China, Israel, Iran, and North Korea, have active cyber capabilities for offensive and defensive operations. As states explore the use of cyber operations and combine capabilities, the likelihood of physical confrontation and violence playing out as a result of, or part of, a cyber operation is increased. Cyberwarfare refers to politically motivated hacking being conducted in the cyberspace between hostile countries. The social and economic infrastructure in Korea is well equipped with advanced information and communications technologies. The national security is more often than not threatened as much by cyberwarfare between the North Korea. It is a form of information warfare sometimes seen as analogous to conventional warfare. ------- https://www.foreignaffairs.com/china/fog-ai The Fog of AI What the Technology Means for Deterrence and War Brett V. Benson and Brett J. Goldstein January 6, 2026 State-aligned groups are already exploring ways to undermine information security through AI-enabled influence operations. One example is GoLaxy, a Chinese company that uses generative AI tools and vast open-source data sets to build detailed psychological profiles of surveilled individuals and deploy, on a large scale, synthetic personas that mimic authentic users. The company’s campaigns often entail gathering detailed information on influential figures, using that information to produce messages that are likely to persuade targeted audiences, and then sending those messages from carefully crafted social media personas. By achieving an acute level of precision and amplifying misleading narratives across multiple platforms, such operations can sow confusion, corrode public discourse, and weaken the domestic base that makes deterrent signals credible abroad. GoLaxy’s alignment with Chinese state priorities and its ties to state-linked research institutes and superconducting firms make it a sophisticated propaganda engine. Documents we analyzed at the Vanderbilt University Institute of National Security show that GoLaxy has already carried out operations in Hong Kong and Taiwan and has been assembling dossiers on members of the U.S. Congress as well as public figures around the world. Open-source intelligence allows adversaries to build comprehensive dossiers on politicians, military leaders, and soldiers for strategic purposes. Precisely targeted persona operations can then use that information. To score tactical wins, for instance, adversaries could target soldiers with deepfake messages containing false impressions of battlefield conditions or circumstances at home—and including accurate personal details about those soldiers’ lives could make the fabrications seem realistic enough to distract their attention or disrupt unit cohesion. In the political sphere, adversaries could blend real photographs of politicians with cloned voices or faces. Even if they are never released, the threat of their exposure could dampen targets’ rhetoric, stall legislative procedures, or weaken leaders’ resolve. And from a strategic standpoint, hostile parties could simulate authorities giving false orders to stand down or divert to alternative communication channels, which could open a window for an adversary to gain ground. The result is a cognitive fog of war. -------- https://www.orangecyberdefense.com/no/news/orange-cyberdefense/security-navigator-2025-reveals-europe-as-top-target-for-hacktivism Security Navigator 2025 reveals Europe as top target for hacktivism, with groups shifting focus to cognitive warfare 5 December 2024 News Orange Cyberdefense Press Release Hugues Foulon, CEO of Orange Cyberdefense, stated, “Cyber threats have become a critical barometer for anticipating global geopolitical tensions. The insights generated by our cyber teams provide a fresh and robust perspective on international disruptions and their operational impacts on society.” “The Security Navigator 2025 underscores an urgent need for coordinated defensive strategies across Europe and beyond, including enhanced incident response measures, strengthened OT protections, and proactive monitoring of public channels to counter the unique blend of cyber extortion, hacktivism, and cognitive warfare facing European organizations,” said Foulon. ---- On the defensive side, the report found that AI is beneficial for detecting hard-to-identify threats. AI-driven systems have improved detection rates for advanced threats like ‘beaconing’ – a tactic where malware sends subtle, periodic signals to command-and-control servers – reducing incident response times by up to 30% as organizations use AI to identify and intercept these signals before damage can escalate​. However, the report also warns about vulnerabilities in GenAI solutions and urges business to implement strict access rights to sensitive data and systems, ensure isolation between tenants, and educate users about the risk of data leaks in prompts. Charl van der Walt, Head of Security Research at Orange Cyberdefense, said, “The story in this year’s report is far bigger than statistics and technical details. It shines a light on a growing cynicism in the threat landscape as different threat actors seem less concerned about the potential of causing harm, and may even be more intent on inflicting it than ever before.” ---- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_warfare Psychological warfare (PSYWAR), or the basic aspects of modern psychological operations (PSYOP), has been known by many other names or terms, including Military Information Support Operations (MISO), political warfare, "winning hearts and minds", and propaganda.[1][2] The term is used "to denote any action which is practiced mainly by psychological methods with the aim of evoking a planned psychological reaction in other people".[3] Various techniques are used, and are aimed at influencing a target audience's value system, belief system, emotions, motives, reasoning, or behavior. It is used to induce confessions or reinforce attitudes and behaviors favorable to the originator's objectives, and are sometimes combined with black operations or false flag tactics. It is also used to destroy the morale of enemies through tactics that aim to depress troops' psychological states.[4][5] Target audiences can be governments, organizations, groups, and individuals, and is not just limited to soldiers. Civilians of foreign territories can also be targeted by technology and media so as to cause an effect on the government of their country.[6] Stories are said to be a key factor in a successful operation.[7] Mass communication such as radio allows for direct communication with an enemy populace, and therefore has been used in many efforts. Social media channels and the internet allow for campaigns of disinformation and misinformation performed by agents anywhere in the world ----------- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_intelligence_agency A private intelligence agency (PIA) is a private sector (non-governmental) or quasi-non-government organization devoted to the collection, analysis, and exploitation of information, through the evaluation of public sources (OSINT or Open Source INTelligence) and cooperation with other institutions.[1] Some private intelligence agencies obtain information deceptively or through on-the-ground activities for clients.[2][3][4][5][6] Private agencies have made their services available to governments as well as individual consumers; they have also sold their services to large corporations with an interest or investment in the category (e.g. crime, disease, corruption, etc.) or the region (e.g. Middle East, Vietnam, Prague, etc.) or to investigate perceived threats such as environmental groups or human rights groups.[7][8][9][10][11] Some private intelligence agencies use online perception management,[12] social media influencing/manipulation campaigns, strategic disinformation[13] (such as fake news production/propaganda production[14]), opposition research and political campaigns using social media and artificial intelligence such as Psy-Group, Cambridge Analytica and Black Cube.[15][16][17][18][19] The Atlantic Council's Digital Forensic Research Lab described the activity of Archimedes Group as practicing "information warfare".[20] Former anti-corruption prosecutor Aaron Sayne said private intelligence is "an industry that's largely undocumented and has very flexible ethical norms" as agencies collect and use sensitive information "for one purpose on day one and some completely contradictory purpose on day two".[21] The private intelligence industry has boomed due to shifts in how the U.S. government is conducting espionage in the war on terror. Some $56 billion (USD) or 70% of the $80 billion national intelligence budget of the United States was in 2013 earmarked for the private sector according to The New York Times' Tim Shorrock. Functions previously performed by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), National Security Agency (NSA), and other intelligence agencies are now outsourced to private intelligence corporations.[22] ---------- https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2023/04 4. Private military and security companies in armed conflict Contents Overview, Ori Swed, Marina Caparini and Sorcha Macleod (PDF) I. The global growth of private military and security companies: Trends, actors and issues of concern, Ori Swed (PDF) II. Private military and security companies in sub-Saharan Africa, Marina Caparini (PDF) III. The current regulatory landscape for private military and security companies, Sorcha Macleod (PDF) Trends, actors and issues of concern The past 20 years have witnessed the rapid growth of private military and security companies (PMSCs). There is no universally accepted, legally binding, standard definition of a PMSC and the sector often operates in a legal lacuna:the employees of PMSCs are not soldiers or civilians, nor can they usually be defined as mercenaries. The wars in Iraq (2003–11) and Afghanistan (2001–21) reshaped perceptions of the private military and security industry, with the massive deployment of contractors by the United States leading to new market opportunities across the globe. Factors contributing to the growth of PMSCs vary by region and state, but they mostly fit with cost-efficiency calculations, where the sector provides skills and services that states do not possess or that would be too costly for states to develop or perform themselves. Today, PMSCs operate in almost every country in the world, for a broad variety of clients, assuming responsibilities for critical state and security functions. The main actors in the sector include both the host countries in which PMSCs are head-quartered and key companies within those countries. A handful of home states host the majority of PMSCs: the USA, the United Kingdom, China and South Africa together are estimated to host about 70 per cent of the entire sector. Russia, while having a relatively small PMSC sector, has arguably used its contractors for combat more than other countries. There are thousands of PMSCs around the world, most of which abide by the law, operate within their mandate and, in general, contribute to stabilization and security in the settings where they operate, often working closely with the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. In the past two decades, however, the rising prominence of several high-profile PMSCs in conflict areas and security settings has prompted increased public interest in the industry. The Wagner Group Russian private military and security companies have been deployed in combat roles in Libya, Syria and Ukraine, as well as in several conflicts across sub-Saharan Africa. Concerns have centred on the activities of the Wagner Group, effectively a Russian state proxy. The Wagner Group’s activities have been linked with human rights abuses, violations of international humanitarian law, problematic and exploitative contracts, and election meddling. In Mali alone, over 450 civilians were killed in nine incidents linked to the Wagner Group in 2020–22. In Ukraine, the Wagner Group has been deployed en masse alongside Russian military units and it has redeployed operators from other conflicts and recruited nationals from Afghanistan, Libya and Syria. Private military and security companies in sub-Saharan Africa Recent trends concerning PMSC involvement in sub-Saharan Africa suggest that the ascendant actors have close, symbiotic links to home state interests as instruments of national policy and geopolitical competition. Russia and China appear to be driving the current expansion of PMSC activity in Africa, although earlier waves of activity were led by European former colonial powers or were part of cold war proxy rivalries. The current phase of growing PMSC involvement in Africa has occurred in a context of increased geopolitical rivalry and internationalized armed conflict. The control and extraction of natural resources is a common focal point. Western PMSCs remain active in Africa, especially in various counter-terrorism initiatives, but not in direct combat roles. In contrast, Russian PMSCs, in particular the Wagner Group, engage directly in military operations, typically for governments (and currently juntas or military transition governments) threatened by rebels or insurgents, with payment often in high-value natural resources or mining concessions. The Wagner Group has been the focus of numerous UN reports or investigations for alleged human rights abuses and violations of international humanitarian law in sub-Saharan Africa. Chinese PMSCs have emerged more slowly and in a more restrained and circumscribed manner, but with a close connection to Chinese investment, infrastructure development and trade expansion. This may portend a more lasting engagement for Chinese interests and actors, including PMSCs, and a greater strategic impact on access to natural resources and, more broadly, sub-Saharan African political dynamics. --------- The current regulatory landscape While the use of PMSCs in armed conflicts and fragile environments appears to be growing, questions remain about the adequacy of existing inter-national efforts and norms to regulate the sector. One of the key regulatory challenges is the use of PMSCs, particularly by Russia and Türkiye, as proxy actors in armed conflicts. These deployments are often framed as lying outside the international legal definition of a mercenary, so some states have turned to counterterrorism approaches instead, for example, by seeking to impose terrorist designations on the Wagner Group or by sanctioning its leading personnel. Cases attempting to hold mercenaries and PMSC personnel to account under criminal justice regimes are rare. Regulatory endeavours at the UN have been reinvigorated by the war in Ukraine and the activities of the Wagner Group. A UN intergovernmental working group process has been attempting to address the gaps between the international legal provisions addressing mercenaries and the softer regulatory approaches of multistakeholder initiatives addressing PMSCs, such as the Montreux Document and the International Code of Conduct for Private Security Providers. However, consensus on the necessity of a legally binding instrument, let alone substantive content, remains elusive. Several key issues arose in the working group discussions in 2022: states were still unable to agree on whether the instrument should be binding or non-binding and there was lack of consensus on its scope, human rights provisions and the content on accountability and remedies for victims. Discussions will continue at the UN in 2023, but whether they will translate into concrete and credible regulatory change remains to be seen. Dr Ori Swed, Dr Marina Caparini and Dr Sorcha MacLeod ------- https://www.vojenskerozhledy.cz/en/kategorie-clanku/bezpecnostni-prostredi/19777-issues-of-resilience-to-cyber-enabled-psychological-and-information-operations Issues of Resilience to Cyber-Enabled Psychological and Information Operations Created by Alias: Mlejnková Petra This article discusses the transformation of the information environment, which allows an adversary to exploit cyber-enabled psychological and information operations. It presents the options currently available to an adversary to exploit the vulnerability of the information environment, chiefly the cognitive vulnerabilities of target groups. Thus, hostile interests are often pursued through manipulation, using disinformation, propaganda, algorithms and artificial intelligence. In the light of these developments, the article defines a society-centric approach, in which societal and human resilience are emphasised. -------- https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/44/7/zsab008/6092754 The effect of sleep restriction on cognitive performance in elite cognitive performers: a systematic review Open Access Tim D Smithies , Adam J Toth , Ian C Dunican , John A Caldwell , Magdalena Kowal , Mark J Campbell Sleep, Volume 44, Issue 7, July 2021, zsab008, https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsab008 Published: Optimal cognitive functioning is fundamental to performance within many work environments. In select safety-critical occupations, the ability to perform complex, cognitively demanding tasks within unpredictable circumstances is integral to operational success. Active military personnel [1], aviation pilots [2], air traffic controllers [3], emergency responders [4], surgeons and medical practitioners [5, 6], and process operators in potentially dangerous environments (i.e. mines, power plants, oil refineries) [7] are all examples of individuals involved in such safety-critical professions. Additionally, while elite athletes do not engage in safety-critical work, optimal cognitive functioning (i.e. attention, executive functioning, decision making) within time-constrained and unpredictable environments is often integral for elite performance [8, 9]. Individuals within these professions must exhibit cognitive expertise not normally present within the general population for operational success, given the complexities and cognitive demands embedded within the tasks involved. Individuals in some of the professions mentioned (i.e. athletes, pilots, air traffic controllers) have been shown to demonstrate enhanced cognitive performance compared to the general population not only within the context of their area of expertise, but also through laboratory testing [10–13], though see an article for Taylor and colleagues [14] for a contrary finding, particularly during task-switching, multitasking and attentionally demanding task paradigms. As a result of the aforementioned cognitive demands and the observed performance benefits these individuals may possess, we refer to them here collectively as Elite Cognitive Performers (ECPs). -------- Sleep quantity has been identified as a key moderator of cognitive performance [15–18]. To date, most sleep quantity research has concerned itself with total sleep deprivation (TSD; a total elimination of sleep obtained during a specified time period), primarily due to the time and cost efficiency of their designs [19]. However, TSD is uncommon ecologically, whereas sleep restriction (SR), referring to a moderate reduction in the amount of sleep across one or more nights (~2–6 h sleep obtained per night), is far more commonly experienced both by the general population [19] and by ECPs [20, 21]. The fact that SR is more frequently experienced than TSD, and that each affects human neurobiology differently [19], has led more recent work to specifically focus on understanding the effects of SR on cognitive performance. In addition to the reviews assessing the effects of SR on cognitive performance among youth [22] and adolescent [23] populations, experimental sleep dose–response studies, such as those conducted by Belenky et al. [24], Jewett et al. [25], Van Dongen et al. [26], and Banks et al. [27], have provided comprehensive insight into the effects of SR on cognition. The results of studies such as by Belenky et al. [24] and by Van Dongen et al. [26], as well as other experimental research, have informed the creation of biomathematical fatigue models, used in safety-critical environments to identify periods of risk and, guide mitigation, and maximize performance [28]. Recently, Lowe et al. [17], in a meta-analysis investigating the effects of SR on cognitive performance, found SR to impact “sustained attention” tasks more than increasingly complex tasks assessing performance in other cognitive domains across numerous populations and age groups. This finding corroborates those of Wickens et al. [29], who noted that simple cognitive task performance is more greatly impacted by sleep loss, as well as earlier seminal research outlining the comparatively greater effects of sleep loss on simple tasks [30]. ---------- That performance on simple tasks appears selectively hindered by SR initially seems counter-intuitive, as prefrontal cortex (PFC; integral to executive functioning) activation is decreased by sleep loss [31, 32]. However, imaging studies (using functional magnetic resonance imaging) have found strong evidence for increased recruitment of frontostriatal circuits and additional brain areas coinciding with the maintenance of performance during increasingly complex and engaging cognitive tests despite decreased PFC activation [31, 33–36]. Through this lens, simple attentional test performance tends not to receive similar compensation due to a lack of arousal, stemming from the low stimulus/salience nature of such tests [37, 38]. Recent work has suggested that these compensatory mechanisms function in a way so as to give preference to task information already present within working memory, helping to maintain focus and attentional strategy throughout the task (i.e. cognitive stability). However, the trade-off appears to be that the ability to alter this information within working memory (i.e. cognitive flexibility), necessary for when attention needs to be shifted when a task dynamic changes (as is common within real-world tasks), is impeded [38]. Despite the abovementioned literature outlining the effects of SR among general populations, it is less clear how SR affects the cognitive performance of ECPs or whether this group is differentially affected by SR. The importance of studying this group independently from the general population is three-fold. Firstly, optimal cognitive performance is arguably more important for ECPs than for the general population, as errors or inadequate performance can have critical outcomes, ranging from loss of competition for high-level athletes, to loss of life in safety-critical occupations. Numerous high-profile catastrophes have involved human errors linked to sleep loss, such as the fatal decision to launch the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986. In the report on the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident [39], it was stated that prior to an important teleconference regarding the decision to launch (a decision proving to result in seven casualties), “key managers obtained only minimal sleep the night before the teleconference” (p. G5), which may have led to poor judgement contributing to the fatal decision to launch. Another example is the pervasiveness of fatigue in aviation, where it is estimated that fatigue contributes to 4%–8% of aviation catastrophes [40]. Secondly, ECPs are at an increased risk of experiencing SR due to their occupational requirements. For example, sleep opportunity can be sparse and unpredictable throughout military combat operations, while other military-specific stressors, such as watch duty and field-based exercises, result in the frequent occurrence of SR [20]. Commercial pilots often have demanding schedules, are constantly exposed to rapid time-zone changes, and often must obtain night-time sleep in uncomfortable cockpit environments, resulting in regularly experienced SR. Rapidly changing work schedules are common for air traffic controllers, causing drastic reductions in sleep quantity, with some operating with as little as 2 h of sleep at times [41]. Irregular and demanding shift work schedules can lead to SR for emergency medical practitioners [42]. Finally, elite athletes can experience SR due to the timing and intensity of training and competition schedules, as well as air-travel requirements, especially when traveling over multiple time-zones [43]. --------- Thirdly, contemporary literature has suggested that ECPs at a group level may demonstrate increased resistance to the effects of sleep loss on cognitive performance. For example, one study found a group of seven active-duty F117 fighter pilots to have greater baseline global cortical activation compared to nonpilots during a working memory task, which then positively correlated with performance on a flight simulator task after 37 h of TSD [44]; however, the authors advocated for further research on larger samples to validate such a finding. In reference to this, some authors have discussed the idea that naturally tolerant individuals to sleep loss may either “self-select” into, or that vulnerable individuals may “self-select” out of, active military professions due to the necessity of maintaining performance following sleep loss [21, 45, 46]. Similar theories have been posited to explain a lack of performance degradation following sleep loss among medical residents [47, 48]. It is noted that individual differences in tolerance to sleep loss within elite groups such as the U.S. Air Force are still present [49]. Together, the importance of optimal cognitive performance for ECPs, their increased risk toward experiencing SR, and their potential increased tolerance to the performance effects of SR at a group level, all make the study of the effects of SR on cognitive performance in ECPs worthwhile. To date, no attempt has been made to review the existing literature examining the effects of SR on the cognitive performance of ECPs. As a result, the purpose of this review is to synthesize and summarize the existing literature explicitly examining the effect of SR on cognitive and occupation-specific performance among ECPs. ------ Database search strategy This review was not registered prior to its undertaking. Included articles did not have to be published in peer-review scientific journals to be considered. Articles included for the current review were obtained through an exhaustive systematic search, in accordance with the updated PRISMA guidelines [50]. Embase, MEDLINE (Ovid MEDLINE(R) and ePub ahead of print, in-process & other nonindexed citations, daily and versions(R)), Web of Science (Core Collection), and Google Scholar databases were searched, as the combination of these four databases presents superior sensitivity/specificity trade-off for systematic searches [51]. Subject-specific databases APA, PSYCinfo, and SportDiscus (both EBSCO host) were also queried to add further sensitivity to the search. Searches using these databases took place on January 27, 2020, except for Google Scholar, which took place the next day. The exact syntax used for each primary database can be found as supplementary file 1. The search strategy for each database involved identifying “key-words” (22 total) within titles and abstracts pertaining to the motor or cognitive abilities, or performance, and combining them with words pertaining to SR (five total), with the exclusion of words related to animal studies, clinical conditions, or reviews. Controlled vocabulary terms (MeSH/EMTREE) were explored and used as exploded terms (searching for the particular word as well as the more specific words that stem from it within the given organization system) where relevant in databases that allowed for them. Inbuilt database filters were used where available to remove studies specifically investigating nonhuman subjects, children, or the elderly; no date or language restrictions were enforced. TS performed the search and screening described. All identified article references were extracted and exported into Endnote version 9.2 (Clarivate Analytics), except for those found via Google Scholar, where only the first 200 references (when searched by relevance; as per Bramer, Rethlefsen, Kleijnen, Franco [51]) were extracted. Overall, 4,648 articles were identified through this search process, with 2,421 remaining once duplicates had been removed (see Figure 1). --------- Gray literature and backward snowballing As some research concerning the effects of SR on performance among ECPs may not have been detected by the above database searches, an additional gray literature search was performed in addition to the use of “backward snowballing” techniques. Five sources of grey literature were queried; two conventional search engines (Google, duckduckgo), two gray literature specific databases (OpenGrey and Science.gov), and the Defence Technical Information Centre (DTIC). These searches took place between January 31, 2020 and February 4, 2020. For these searches, similar terms to those used in the primary database searches were used (see supplementary file 2 for the exact syntax used for each grey literature database search). For the DTIC search, the first 100 results were investigated, while for the other grey literature sources, the first 50 were investigated (or less, if less than 50 results appeared), in a similar fashion to that discussed for Google Scholar by Bramer et al. [51]. “Backward snowballing” refers to a technique where the reference lists of previously identified reviews or journal articles within a relevant topic are searched to obtain further relevant articles [52]. Due to prior knowledge that many studies conducted in defence institutes are not published in peer-reviewed journals and are therefore not identified by primary database searches, reviews focusing on such studies were targeted for backward snowballing. Additionally, the references of two reviews on the effects of SR on cognition in the general population were also searched, as they were considered to be the closest in content to the current review. Overall, the reference sections of five reviews and one annotated bibliography were searched for relevant studies [17, 29, 53–56]. Backward snowballing was manually performed by TS. In total, 264 articles identified based on their title and abstract through the grey literature searches, and 577 articles identified through backward snowballing were screened (Figure 1). ========== The authors would like to thank Niall Ramsbottom, who assisted in the coding of training effect bias in the current review. 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Neurology. 2009 ;73 (21 ):e99 –e103 . Google ScholarCrossref PubMed WorldCat © The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Sleep Research Society. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Supplementary data zsab008_suppl_Supplementary_Material - docx file Study Objectives To synthesize original articles exploring the effects of sleep restriction on cognitive performance specifically for Elite Cognitive Performers, i.e. those who engage in cognitively demanding tasks with critical or safety-critical outcomes in their occupation or area of expertise. Methods Backward snowballing techniques, gray literature searches, and traditional database searches (Embase, MEDLINE, Web of Science, Google Scholar, PSYCinfo, and SportDiscus) were used to obtain relevant articles. A quality assessment was performed, and the risk of training effects was considered. Results were narratively synthesized. Fourteen articles fit the criteria. Cognitive outcomes were divided into three categories defined by whether cognitive demands were “low-salience,” “high-salience stable,” or “high-salience flexible.” Results Low-salience tests (i.e. psychomotor vigilance tasks & serial reaction tests), mainly requiring vigilance and rudimentary attentional capacities, were sensitive to sleep restriction, however, this did not necessarily translate to significant performance deficits on low-salience occupation-specific task performance. High-salience cognitive outcomes were typically unaffected unless when cognitive flexibility was required. Conclusions Sleep restriction is of particular concern to occupations whereby individuals perform (1) simple, low-salience tasks or (2) high-salience tasks with demands on the flexible allocation of attention and working memory, with critical or safety-critical outcomes. --------- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31096123/ Effects of sleep extension on cognitive/motor performance and motivation in military tactical athletes Bradley M Ritland 1 , Guido Simonelli 2 , Rodolphe J Gentili 3 , J Carson Smith 4 , Xin He 5 , Janna Mantua 6 , Thomas J Balkin 7 , Bradley D Hatfield 8 Objective: Investigate the immediate and residual impacts of sleep extension in tactical athletes. Methods: A randomized controlled trial (Sleep extension = EXT vs Control = CON) was conducted on 50 (EXT: 20.12 ± 2.01 years vs CON: 19.76 ± 1.09 years) tactical athletes enrolled in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). Participants wore actigraphs for 15 consecutive nights and completed a cognitive/motor battery after seven habitual sleep nights, after four sleep extension nights, and after the resumption of habitual sleep for four nights. The CON group remained on habitual sleep schedules for the entire study. Results: During the intervention, the EXT group significantly increased mean sleep time (1.36 ± 0.71 h, p < 0.001). After sleep extension, there were significant between-group differences on the mean score change since baseline in Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) reaction time (p = 0.026), Trail Making Test (TMT) - B time (p = 0.027), standing broad jump (SBJ) distance (p < 0.001), and motivation levels [to perform the cognitive tasks (p = 0.003) and the SBJ (p = 0.009)]; with the EXT group showing a greater enhancement in performance/motivation. After resuming habitual sleep schedules, significant between-group differences on the mean score change since baseline persisted on SBJ distance (p = 0.001) and motivation to perform the SBJ (p = 0.035), with the EXT showing greater enhancement in performance/motivation. Conclusion: Increasing sleep duration in military tactical athletes resulted in immediate performance benefits in psychomotor vigilance, executive functioning, standing broad jump distance, and motivation levels. Benefits on motor performance were evident four days after resumption of habitual sleep schedules. Military tactical athletes aiming to optimize their overall performance should consider the impact of longer sleep durations when feasible. Keywords: Cognitive/motor performance; Military; Motivation; Sleep extension; Tactical athletes. ---------- https://baltdefcol.org/education/cyber-defence-policy-course Cyber Defence Policy Course on National and International Levels Cyber Defence Policy Course on National and International Levels REGISTRATION for the next course: 09-13 March 2026 The aim is to provide course participants with the conceptual framework to facilitate strategic thinking about cyber defence and develop an understanding of how to integrate cyber considerations into national and international security policy and strategy formulation. Description The course will underscore the multidimensional character of cyber defence through specific lessons learned from the war in Ukraine. Guest speakers representing diverse opinions from the political, military, academic, and private sectors will stress the importance of the comprehensive approach and cross-sector cooperation for strengthening cybersecurity on national and international levels during peace and war. The course is scheduled for March 09-13, 2026, in Tartu, Estonia, and will be delivered in English. A standard iteration consists of the residential session as well as e-learning. Learning Outcomes The training will provide the participants with basic skills and knowledge to analyse and design proper policy frameworks and strategies for cyber defence. The curriculum has been designed to provide an integrated overview of contemporary geopolitical affairs and security issues to enable students to think creatively and critically about issues of strategic importance. Quote key features of the modern/future security environment. Define the cyber domain as a key enabler and tool of hybrid warfare. Define the validity of cyberspace in the creation, storage, modification, exchange and exploitation of information. Assess the role of cyber defence in national and international security contexts - Determine the appropriate measures to ensure national security in the digital era. Define the dependency of the military domain on communication and information systems & networks. Define the growing role of cyberspace as a web of critical assets and its relation to national security. Understand basic technological aspects of cybersecurity. Classify the instruments of national power and relate them to the effects of cyberspace. Analyze the strategic aspects of cyber security in the national security environment. Apply cyberspace terminology, concepts, issues, and components. Relate cybersecurity considerations with the information environment. Analyze various aspects of cybersecurity and relate their effects to national security. Evaluate cyberspace policies and generate strategic concepts and approaches to cyber defence. Administration Security Classification: UNCLASSIFIED Costs: There is no course fee, but participants are to bear the cost of their travel, meals and lodging. Dress Code: Military personnel—Field Uniforms; Civilians—Casual Upon finishing the course, each participant will receive a certificate. Useful Information Security Classification: UNCLASSIFIED Costs: There is no course fee, but participants are to bear the cost of their travel, meals and lodging. Dress Code: Military personnel—Field Uniforms; Civilians—Casual Upon finishing the course, each participant will receive a certificate. POC ESDC Cyber ETEE Training Manager Ms Anna Malec Anna.Malec@eeas.europa.eu Course Office Ms Kaie Ehrenberg kaie.ehrenberg@baltdefcol.org ------------- https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/year-2025-cognitive-domain-operations-total-defence-cyber-svantesson-5bjzc/ The year of 2025 – Cognitive domain operations, total defence, cyber militias, and data localisation Dan Jerker B. Svantesson The threat of ‘cognitive domain operations’ In December, the US Department of Defense released the 2024 edition of annual report on Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China. One of the many important observations made in the Report, relates to how the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) concept of “cognitive domain operations” (CDO) combines psychological warfare with cyber operations to shape the behaviour and decision-making of China’s adversaries: “The PLA has recognized the importance of incorporating emerging technologies, such as AI, big data, brain science, and neuroscience into CDO as the PLA perceives that these technologies will lead to profound changes in the ability to subvert human cognition. The goal of CDO is to achieve what the PLA refers to as “mind dominance,” which the PLA defines as the use of information to influence public opinion to affect change in a nation’s social system, likely to create an environment favorable to the PRC and reduce civilian and military resistance to PLA actions. The PLA probably intends to use CDO as an asymmetric capability to deter U.S. or third-party entry into a potential conflict, or as an offensive capability to shape perceptions or polarize a society. Authoritative PLA documents describe one aspect of deterrence as the ability to bring about psychological pressure and fear on an opponent and force them to surrender. PLA articles on CDO state that seizing mind dominance in the cognitive domain and subduing the enemy without fighting is the highest realm of warfare.” (p. 38) At a time when countries such as China are increasing their efforts to influence our societies, we must ask whether we in the democratic countries in the world are doing enough to protect ourselves. In this context, I note the debates about Australia’s abandoned Communications Legislation Amendment (Combatting Misinformation and Disinformation) Bill 2024 as well as the fact that the US closed down its Global Engagement Center on 23 December. Up until then, the Global Engagement Center worked to “direct, lead, synchronize, integrate, and coordinate U.S. Federal Government efforts to recognize, understand, expose, and counter foreign state and non-state propaganda and disinformation efforts aimed at undermining or influencing the policies, security, or stability of the United States, its allies, and partner nations.”. An important task indeed. ---------- The necessity of a ‘whole-of-society’ approach to cyber defence During the Cold War, Sweden relied on its ‘totalförsvar’ concept and work is now ongoing to resuscitate this structure. Totalförsvar is commonly translated in a literal way as ‘total defence’. However, that term lacks a natural meaning in English, and a more informative translation may be found in the phrase ‘whole-of-society defence’. Essentially the idea is that the defence of a State is thea literal way as ‘total defence’. However, that term lacks a natural meaning in English, and a more informative translation may be found in the phrase ‘whole-of-society defence’. Essentially the idea is that the defence of a State is a task for everyone. Thus, the ‘total defence’ consists of both military activities (military defence) and civilian activities (civil defence). Total defence includes authorities, organisations, private individuals and companies. This means that all of Sweden's residents are affected by total defence and are part of Sweden's defence. At any rate, if the ‘total defence’ thinking was (merely) a smart strategy in the past, with a cyber-dominated society, it is now an absolute necessity. Cyber is a whole-of-society issue, and the defence of cyber needs a whole-of-society approach. Consequently, we need to see a whole-of-society approach to defence in all democratic States. ----- https://mil.ee/en/landforces/cyber-command/ Cyber Command The main mission of the Cyber Command is to carry out operations in cyberspace in order to provide command support for Ministry of Defence’s area of responsibility. Mission essential Tasks Provide information and communication technology infrastructure and services Provide cyber defence Plan and execute cyber operations Gain, maintain and share cyberspace situation awareness Plan and execute information operations Provide Headquarters support for Joint Headquarters Plan and execute strategic communicatons Train, prepare and mobilize wartime and reserve units Conduct functional area Training, Research and Development Cyber Command reservists training Contacts Cyber Command Juhkentali 58 15007 Tallinn Estonia +372 717 1652 kubervaejuhatus@mil.ee facebook.com/kybervaejuhatus Press and Media contact Second Lieutenant Hannes Parmo Public Affairs Officer of Cyber Command +372 5346 4972 hannes.parmo@mil.ee ------------ https://www.tehnopol.ee/en/category/dual-use-and-defence-technologies/ 578 applications, 115+ companies and €12.8 million raised – Tehnopol Startup Incubator 2025 wrap-up The new year is already well underway and the next cohort of specialised accelerator programmes is about to kick off. Before 2026 fully gains momentum, it’s a good moment to look back: what did 2025 look like for Tehnopol Startup Incubator, and – most importantly – what kind of impact did it have on our startups and the wider ecosystem? 2025 was a fast-paced year by the numbers. We received 578 applications across our accelerator programmes, and 115+ companies joined our programmes during the year. A clear trend is that new cohorts are becoming more mature from day one: teams enter the programme with sharper focus, more realistic market validation and a clearer development roadmap. ----------- execute alongside ambition – both in product development and in investor readiness. The Incubator’s own capacity grew as well. Our team expanded to 11 people, with three new colleagues joining in 2025, enabling us to strengthen programme delivery, community building and the development of new strategic directions. The Incubator’s recommendation score (NPS) reached 97.1. Diverse programmes and several “firsts” In 2025, we ran multiple accelerators and development programmes in parallel, including a technology-agnostic accelerator, the Film & Multimedia Accelerator, the AI Accelerator, the Cyber Accelerator, the NATO DIANA Estonia Accelerator, the Defence pre-accelerator, and several Estonia-focused programmes. In addition, the AI development programme started a new period in January 2025 (running until 2027), during which we will support 40 companies using AI technologies. The year also brought several milestone “firsts”: Defence Innovation Day – the Incubator’s very first conference, which opened Estonia’s first-ever Estonian Defence Week. Defence Business Lab – a new-format defence pre-accelerator programme that concluded with a Demo Day. Foreign Founders Meetup – community events commissioned by EIS for international founders residing in Estonia. The first Film & Multimedia Accelerator hackathon in Jõhvi, bringing together 90+ participants and helping shape several strong teams and ideas. --------- Film & Multimedia Accelerator: strengthening structure and impact For the Film & Multimedia Accelerator, 2025 was primarily a year of deepening impact and partnerships. We contributed to several sector events and panel discussions, including talks and panels as part of the kood/Jõhvi JobFair, activities at sTARTUp Day, bringing an international speaker to Jõhvi Film Day, the Film & Multimedia Tech Hackathon, and representation at PÖFF Industry. Collaboration strengthened with IDA Hub, PÖFF, kood/Jõhvi and BFM, with a clear goal: building real bridges between the creative and technology sectors. A key step was the partnership agreement between BFM and the Tehnopol Film & Multimedia Accelerator, making it possible to complete an entrepreneurship internship within the accelerator. In 2025, the Film & Multimedia Accelerator also launched an Advisory Board for the first time, adding strategic guidance and diverse perspectives (including well-known experts such as Tiina Lokk and Kaupo Karelson). Defence and dual-use: consistently full rooms and strong results Interest in defence and dual-use innovation remained very high in 2025. Several events – such as the DIANA kick-off event, the Defence pre-accelerator info session, community coffee mornings, Demo Day, new-call webinars, and Estonian Defence Week events (including regional meetups) – were sold out or extremely popular online. DIANA-related topics were also consistently visible in our communications throughout the year. Importantly, strong interest translated into strong outcomes. In 2025, three Estonian companies were selected for the NATO DIANA accelerator (Spacedrip, C2Grid and LSMedical; C2Grid also completed the defence pre-accelerator). The performance of the NATO DIANA Estonia Accelerator improved as well: 3 out of 7 companies advanced to Phase 2, resulting in a 42.86% success rate (up from 33.33% in 2024). NATO DIANA Estonia Accelerator companies were also the most active users of mentoring, with mentoring rated 4–5 out of 5 and overall satisfaction at 9.57 out of 10. Startup highlights that stood out in 2025 Several teams made notable progress during the year: Wayren secured a €7.9 million strategic investment from defence industry company EFA Group. Lobster Robotics’ underwater robots were adopted by the Royal Netherlands Navy in 2025 (after earlier testing with the Estonian Navy). Defence pre-accelerator team Thistle made strong strides internationally through sales, partnerships and testing across multiple markets. From the Cyber Accelerator, Askara AI Solutions began cooperation with defence industry prime Thales. Film & Multimedia Accelerator teams also moved forward visibly – for example, SyncHub gained its first paying customer, StudioStack grew its user base, and several teams increased their visibility through pitching opportunities and stage appearances. Looking ahead to 2026 2026 brings several major next steps: a Deep Tech programme in preparation with universities and Sparkup Tartu Science Park, continued growth in defence and dual-use activities (including new accelerators and hackathons), and in the creative sector, a shift toward deeper integration of AI – from individual tools to end-to-end workflows (from scripting to editing, visuals, and virtual/hybrid production). A key milestone is also ahead in Jõhvi: the IDA Hub grand opening in August 2026, giving new momentum to the film campus ambitions. In one sentence, 2025 was a year where both scale and quality increased: more applications, more mature teams, stronger partnerships, and very tangible results – both in funding raised and international breakthroughs. --------- The Estonian startup Thistle, which develops and manufactures mobile counter-drone systems, recently completed its participation in the defence-technology pre-accelerator Defence Business Lab. The programme is designed for startups whose idea has been validated and who have an initial prototype, along with the ambition to further develop and test it in a real environment. Thistle’s CEO, Gerda-Annika Aaslaid, describes the experience as an important milestone for the company: “Defence Business Lab is an excellent introduction for entering the defence sector.” ------- https://www.diana.nato.int/connect/nato-dianas-estonian-accelerator-a-hub-for-defence-innovation-in-tallinn-and-tartu.html NATO DIANA's Estonian Accelerator: a hub for defence innovation in Tallinn and Tartu NATO DIANA "The NATO DIANA Estonian Accelerator is run by Tehnopol Startup Incubator in Tallinn and Sparkup Tartu Science Park in Tartu. Our focus is accelerating technologies in AI, cyber, robotics, energy resilience, healthtech, deep tech, space – work we have led for 20+ years." What is your role within the NATO DIANA programme, and what support do you offer innovators? "2026 will be our third year in NATO DIANA, bringing advanced experience, digital infrastructure, a compact and agile testing environment, allowing startups to showcase their strengths in a geopolitically urgent environment. Our pool of nearly 200 experts in defence, technology, business, legal/IP, and investment are ready to support innovators. Mentors come from organisations such as the Estonian Defence Forces Cyber Command, Estonian Navy, Estonian Defence League, CCDCOE, Milrem, Solita, SensusQ, Combat Ready, Tera VC, and Superangel. Our ecosystem integrates 9 DIANA-affiliated test centres, including TalTech, Foundation CR14, the Estonian National Defence College, the Estonian Academy of Security Sciences - from research to real-life scenarios. As the Estonian ecosystem is small, everyone is one call away, and defence tech companies can find VCs and defence end-users at the same event. The Estonian accelerator and our teams are regularly involved with all major local events like Latitude59, sTARTUp Day, Defence Tech Meetups, CyCon, demo events, Defence Innovation Day, internationally at EBAN congress, and many more." --------- We regularly host high-level guests at innovator events, including the Chief of Staff of the Estonian Defence Forces, Estonia’s Defence Minister, as well as NATO DIANA’s Board of Directors. Our teams boast funding wins: Wayren (€7.9M) and Goldilock (€1.5M). There is real-life defence adoption: Lobster Robotics’ drones are in use by the Dutch Navy. And outside of the scope of DIANA, several innovators have already tested and validated their solutions in Ukraine." Can you share an example of a company that you supported? "Wayren signed a €7.9M strategic agreement during their DIANA journey and were tested during a life-fire HIMARS exercise on Saaremaa by the Estonian Defence Forces." --------- How does your site help connect people to your broader networks? "The Estonian Accelerator bridges the defence and startup ecosystems, connecting innovators to government, industry, academia, and investors: • Government: Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, City of Tallinn • End-users and military: Estonian Defence Forces, Cyber Command, Defence League, CR14, CCDCOE. • Tech & Academia: TalTech, University of Tartu, Milrem Robotics, SensusQ, Skeleton, DefSecIntel. • Investors: Project A, Superangel, Unmanned VC, Defence Angels Network, SmartCap, Tera VC, Plural, and others." -------- https://easychair.org/cfp/CyCon2026 CyCon 2026: 18th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Securing tomorrow Hilton Tallinn Park Tallinn, Estonia, May 26-29, 2026 Throughout the years, the International Conference on Cyber Conflict (CyCon) has established itself as a prominent multidisciplinary conference, with keynotes and panels focusing on the technical, legal, policy, strategy and military perspectives of cyber defence and security. This is undoubtedly thanks to the amount of high-quality original academic research presented at the conference. The theme of Cycon 2026 is "Securing Tomorrow". The pace of technological development shows no sign of slowing. Each breakthrough in connectivity, computing, and automation shapes a world that is more dependent on digital systems and evermore vulnerable to their disruption. As we innovate, we must also anticipate. Securing tomorrow begins now, with the decisions we make and the strategies we set in motion today. How do governments, industry leaders, legal experts, and technologists work together to adapt to new threats and secure tomorrow? Submission Guidelines All papers must be original and not simultaneously submitted to another journal or conference. List of Topics Cyber security and cyber defence strategy and doctrine. Legal and ethical dimensions of cyber operations. Technological advancements (e.g. artificial intelligence, autonomous systems). Military applications of cyber capabilities. Cyber resilience at national and international levels. Cyber operations in hybrid and information/psychological warfare contexts, multi domain operations, and joint operations. Collaboration between private - public sector, civilian and military in the cyber domain. --------- https://www.estmil.tech/ EstMil.tech Military Decision Making in the Era of New Technologies January 14-15, 2026 in Tallinn, Estonia ---- About EstMil.tech 2026 The speed and efficiency of decision-making is the key to success on the battlefield. The rapid integration of technology into human decision-making creates many opportunities for facilitating military operations, while also raises new challenges and risks. For example, artificial intelligence (AI) may give nations advantages by increasing situational awareness and assisting with decision-making at machine speed, yet it could also involve risks, e.g. by recommending targets for lethal force and enabling military systems to take actions without human control. Introducing new technologies into the human-centered command chain also raises the question as to how AI techniques fit in to existing procedures, concepts, and capabilities of military organizations. To address the above issues, a systematic review would be essential. Decision-making systems should be looked at from an integrated perspective of cognitive, organizational, cultural, and ethical aspects of military decision-making and the role of technology in it. 20241223201432-1f0d3c79-me_edited.jpg 20240424160313-6475d6db-me_edited.jpg The main theme of the conference is related to the challenges of technology in military decision-making. Sub-themes include the role of military AI in future conflicts, the impact of cognitive warfare, and the challenges of joint operations. Conference participants include security experts, representatives of armed forces and defence industry, as well as researchers involved in the development of emerging and dual-use technologies. ​ The conference will cover the following topics: • Future of military decision making • Role of AI in future conflicts • Cognitive warfare with superior adversary • Cooperation models with academia and industry ------ https://www.freethink.com/biotech/synchron-bci#:~:text=But%20Synchron%20may%20be%20ahead,Australia%2C%20another%20in%20the%20US. “Hello, world!” read one inconspicuous tweet posted on the Twitter account of Tom Oxley, founder and CEO of Synchron, a startup that develops brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), in December 2021. The tweet wasn’t written by Oxley but one of Synchron’s patients, Philip O’Keefe. O’Keefe suffers from ALS, a neurodegenerative disease that is causing him to gradually lose control of his muscles. His BCI, implanted almost two years prior, allowed him to type out the message with his mind, partially restoring his ability to communicate and interact with the world. When BCIs pop up in the popular media, it’s often in connection to Elon Musk’s Neuralink. But Synchron may be ahead of the game in some respects. The company was founded four years earlier than its chief competitor, in 2012, has received investments from Bill Gates and Jeff Bezos, and has already launched two trials – one in Australia, another in the US. The company’s key advantage over Neuralink, which took on its first human patient earlier this year, is that its BCIs do not require brain surgery. Where Neuralink implants its interfaces directly into the cerebral cortex, Synchron implants its devices through the patient’s bloodstream, circumventing the cost and risks of physically penetrating the human skull. In August 2020, the FDA designated Synchron’s BCI as a Breakthrough Device, acknowledging its potential to improve treatment for debilitating or life-altering conditions, and paving the way for clinical trials. So far, the results are promising. “There are 8 million people in the US living with various forms of paralysis,” Synchron’s CTO, Riki Banerjee, explained in a recent talk at EmTech 2024, a yearly conference on emerging technologies hosted by MIT. “You lose the ability to control not just your interactions with others, but also your environment – whether it’s adjusting the thermostat or ensuring home security. We see BCI as a way to restore this lost connection.” In an interview with Freethink, Banerjee explains how Synchron’s BCI works, the tech that informed its design, and what it has been able to do for those who agreed to let the company put its invention inside their bodies. ------- How Synchron’s BCI works Before joining Synchron, Banerjee spent 15 years in neuromodulation research, which involves stimulating nerve activity through electrical and chemical stimuli. Neuromodulation and – by extension – BCIs evolved from pacemaker technology that dates back to the 1950s, a time when brain implants were still the stuff of science fiction. “The field has seen significant growth over the last 5 to 10 years,” she tells Freethink over Zoom, with initial research focusing on mental disorders like OCD, depression, and insomnia before moving on to other conditions like paralysis. “Neurotech is not just about the brain,” she explains. “It involves the entire nervous system, including peripheral nerves.” “The cranium attenuates brainwaves. This is fortunate insofar as we don’t want others to hear our thoughts, but it also complicates treatment.” Riki Banerjee Synchron’s decision to develop a BCI that could be delivered through a vein started from the complications of brain surgery. “Accessing the brain is a complex and often highly specialized procedure,” Banerjee says. “There are only around 1,000 to 2,000 neurosurgeons who can perform these types of surgeries, which – while they have long been approved for conditions like Parkinson’s or epilepsy – remain a barrier for many.” Still, the company understood that for their BCI’s to work properly, they needed to find a way to get them into the brain: “It’s the skull that gets in the way. From a signal processing perspective, the cranium attenuates brainwaves. This is fortunate insofar as we don’t want others to hear our thoughts, but it also complicates treatment.” Synchron’s BCI is inserted via the jugular vein, which runs up the neck into the brain, using a catheter. Once in the brain, the catheter releases a self-expanding device made from Nitinol, a biocompatible, erosion-resistant nickel-titanium alloy, which is commonly used to widen arteries in surgical procedures. As Banerjee explained in her talk at EmTech, the implanted BCI can detect certain brain waves and send them to a separate receiver, implanted in the chest. In patients suffering from paralysis, the system can transmit their intended but unperformed physical actions to an external device, like a phone, TV remote, or Amazon Alexa, allowing them to use these devices without their voice or hands. “Our devices are designed for chronic implantation,” Banerjee tells Freethink, “meaning they stay in the body for years. In Australia, we have a patient whose implant has been in place for over four years at this point.” Banerjee says that malfunctioning implants can be repaired by updating their software from the outside. While the brain implant cannot be removed, because tissue grows around the device, the chest component can be taken out and replaced. ------- Elad Levy, principal investigator of the study and L. Nelson Hopkins Endowed Chair of Neurosurgery at the Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences at the University at Buffalo, referred to the trial as a “major medical milestone,” adding that “this minimally-invasive approach has the potential to unlock BCI technology at scale for the millions of patients with paralysis and other mobility challenges.” News coverage of the trials has largely focused on how the BCIs have improved the lives of individual patients. An article from Wired followed Mark, a 64-year-old with ALS, who received his BCI in August 2023. As the trials progressed, Synchron worked to make its implant compatible with various popular electronic devices, including Alexa, which Mark can now command without using his voice. According to the article, Synchron was also able to connect Mark’s BCI to the Apple Vision Pro, a mixed reality headset which – after updates – allowed Mark to play video games like Solitaire by moving the cursor with his thoughts. Looking ahead As promising as these trials have been, it’s important to note that the time frame is too short, and the number of participants too few, to draw “firm conclusions,” as Banerjee herself said at EmTech. That said, each new test allows Synchron to better understand the long-term challenges of brain implants and improve their devices accordingly. In 2025, the company plans to launch its third trial – this time with a commercially available system. In addition to increasing the processing speeds of their BCIs, Synchron is hoping to use the implants to treat other conditions related to the brain and nervous system. “The current system requires a device on the chest for power and communication,” Banerjee says of the future, “but our next system will have a rechargeable battery, improving usability. Patients will be able to use it anytime, even if they wake up in the middle of the night.” Along the way, she hopes her work will be able to change the negative, mistrustful attitudes that many people have of brain implants. “The biggest misconception is that we’re directly reading people’s thoughts,” she says. “Actually, we’re looking at small signals – like tapping a finger to click a mouse –simple on/off actions. We’re translating that to activity on a screen or computer. From a privacy standpoint, we’re not extrapolating thoughts. That’s a long way off. In truth, we give away more information using our phones, credit cards, and apps than we do with these implants. The privacy concerns about reading thoughts are far from reality. For now, it’s more like computer code than thought-reading.” We’d love to hear from you! If you have a comment about this article or if you have a tip for a future Freethink story, please email us at tips@freethink.com. ------- https://www.dw.com/en/china-ai-artificial-intelligence-deepseek-us-chatgpt-semiconductors-graphics-technology-v2/a-74361630#:~:text=Beijing%20is%20also%20pushing%20its,history%2C%20culture%20and%20truth%20itself. Can Europe keep up with the US, China in the high-tech race? 02:53 The pressure to innovate under such constraints is driving China to find smarter, more efficient ways to scale AI, potentially accelerating its ambition for long-term independence. This is an outcome far from what Washington intended. "US chip export restrictions to China are counterproductive. They incentivize firms like DeepSeek to optimize older hardware, advancing research," Domingos said, referring to how the Chinese firm built powerful AI models using less advanced chips by finding smarter ways to train them. US pushes AI frontier, China seeks global markets The US still leads the AI race in frontier research, figuring out how to build systems that understand language better, follow instructions more reliably and avoid harmful behavior. US tech firms are also exploring advanced AI for images, video and can even make decisions on its own. China is, however, gaining ground in real-world impact and international reach by exporting AI infrastructure and open-source models to developing countries, eager for digital infrastructure. The likes of Alibaba and Huawei are building data centers and cloud platforms across Asia, Africa and Europe, offering cheaper alternatives to US providers. Beijing is also pushing its own AI governance frameworks internationally, aiming to shape global standards according to its national interests. By promoting models trained on Chinese data and values, the government wants to influence how AI systems interpret history, culture and truth itself. This, of course, comes from an authoritarian system where freedom of expression is tightly controlled. As Domingos put it: "Whoever controls the large language models controls the past and the future … Large language models shape reality and China wants models that reflect their version of it." Robin Feldman, director of the AI Law and Innovation Institute at UC Law in San Francisco, went further, describing the AI race as a "new form of Cold War." "That war will be won by the country that can develop and maintain the greatest lead in artificial intelligence," he told US news site Axios. Edited by: Uwe Hessler Correction, October 21, 2025: An earlier version of this article misspelled the name of NVIDIA CEO Jensen Huang. DW apologizes for the error. ---------- https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/bitstreams/fa253285-7555-41e0-9e2c-631e508553cd/download -------- https://www.ituc-csi.org/corporate-underminers-of-democracy-2025#:~:text=Palantir%20Technologies:%20Owned%20by%20far%2Dright%20billionaire%20Peter,warfare%2C%20policing%2C%20immigration%20enforcement%20and%20intelligence%20analysis. 2025 CORPORATE UNDERMINERS OF DEMOCRACY The 2024 edition of Corporate Underminers of Democracy demonstrated the pervasiveness of anti-democratic behaviour across the corporate world, implicating institutional investors (Vanguard), private equity (Blackstone), big tech (Meta, Amazon), automotive firms (Tesla), and heavy industry giants (Exxon, Glencore). This year’s list focuses on the rising threat to democracy posed by major and emerging players in the rapid militarisation of the global economy. In 2025, these companies are enabling growing militarism, demanding egregious deregulation, overseeing declines in – or leading outright opposition to workplace democracy, and aligning with far-right forces that seek to roll back the modest progress made over the past 80 years towards pluralist democracy and peace. In our 2025 analysis, seven companies in particular stand out: Amazon.com (returning): Billionaire Jeff Bezos’s Amazon returns to our list after being named a Corporate Underminer of Democracy in 2024. Regularly hosting defence industry events and marketing itself as “Amazon for Warfighters,” the company joins other tech industry players in seeking to grow its taxpayer-funded revenue streams through the arms industry while platforming and associating with far-right figures. Anduril Industries: Anduril is perhaps the least-known entry into this year’s list. Described as “straddling the line between hacker culture and hawkish ideology,” its niche lies in building dystopian autonomous killing machines. Meta Platforms Inc. (returning): Meta, named a Corporate Underminer in 2024, returns to our list as billionaire CEO Mark Zuckerberg accelerates its pivot towards far-right ideology and military contracting. Northrop Grumman: Northrop Grumman “is the single largest nuclear weapons profiteer.” While more sophisticated in disguising its politics than its younger peer companies, Northrop nonetheless finances far-right figures who oppose multilateralism, arms control, and trade unions. Palantir Technologies: Owned by far-right billionaire Peter Thiel, Palantir has, over two decades, become the de facto data operating system for warfare, policing, immigration enforcement and intelligence analysis. Space Exploration Technologies: Far-right billionaire Elon Musk’s SpaceX is now deeply embedded in military planning and deployments, while the profits Musk reaps are channelled into far-right political projects on multiple continents. Vanguard (returning): The largest investor in nuclear weapons production in the world, Vanguard returns to our list after being named a Corporate Underminer of Democracy in 2024. While notorious rival BlackRock scrambles to navigate right-wing attacks on its alleged “wokeism,” Vanguard quickly abandoned its environmental and social governance pledges to curry favour with the American far right. ---------- https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/a-rising-wave-of-tech-disruptors-the-future-of-defense-innovation A rising wave of tech disruptors: The future of defense innovation? February 22, 2024 | Article For several decades, national security agendas focused primarily on asymmetric and transnational threats such as terrorism and cybercrime. However, sometimes the uncertain global geopolitical environment can cause peer and near-peer competition, as evidenced in the national security strategies published since 2022 in Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States.4 These strategies can lead to demand for new technologies to increase resilience and efficacy—in particular, technologies that will support new disaggregated and “joint all-domain” concepts. We have noticed that there is a call for three overlapping sets of capabilities: Disaggregating capabilities: By disaggregating capabilities into networks of smaller nodes, force planners can reduce points of failure and increase the likelihood of successful missions connecting air, land, sea, and space assets. This could improve operational coverage while boosting resilience. Instead of one high-value satellite, for example, the preference might be for an array of smaller, linked satellites; instead of one manned submarine, a coordinated fleet of unmanned underwater vehicles. Effective communication networks: For such disaggregated assets to function collectively, real-time intelligence sharing—enabled by resilient and effective communication networks—is important. Resilient networks can ensure instant communication between assets (meshing sensors to effectors) and allow for smooth, responsive operations. Resilient network-enabling technologies such as 5G, phased-array antennas, artificial intelligence (AI), and high-density computing can enable the movement of responsive decision making to the tactical edge where they can have the greatest mission impact. New technologies: Engineering high bandwidth, resilient networks would likely involve retrofitting existing platforms—or developing entirely new architectures (such as AI-powered command-and-control systems that connect users across services and collation partners in air, land, sea, and space). The density of technology-enabled mission systems is likely to continue to increase for the foreseeable future. Either way, new technologies—including decentralized cloud computing, data management, edge analytics, autonomy-enabling systems, and a plethora of hardware solutions and novel materials—are frequently cited capability needs. Start-ups (along with their commercial hyperscaler counterparts) are well positioned to fulfill critical national security needs, complementing the traditional industrial base. ------- These capabilities alone, however, may no longer be enough. In response to evolving needs, a new generation of security tech companies has materialized. This new cohort features both start-ups and commercial technology hyperscalers and can offer different but complementary benefits: greater spend on high-risk R&D, relative to size, than the average defense contractor top-tier software and a new generation of STEM talent with fluency in digital technologies such as AI, quantum computing, and advanced microelectronics product-oriented business models that tend to be faster, cheaper, and more innovative a focus on commercially priced, scalable products and services The European Union and the United States have signaled interest in these novel capabilities. The US Department of Defense has taken steps to access commercial technology through new acquisition and budgeting authorities—for example, increasing the prominence of the Defense Innovation Unit and establishing the Replicator initiative in 2023 to rapidly field autonomous, attritable systems.6 NATO has formed an innovation accelerator (DIANA) to foster collaboration with start-ups and other tech companies, and has announced the €1 billion NATO Innovation Fund focused on dual-use technologies.7 Private capital has also indicated an intent to pursue defense tech opportunities, and we have observed that VC investment in such technologies outpaced the overall growth in venture spending between 2019 and 2023. Meanwhile, traditional defense firms have increased their corporate venture funds to be able to access the emerging tech. New defense tech companies face obstacles Despite this momentum, many next-generation defense tech firms have struggled to do business at scale with national security organizations.8 This is likely due to three main challenges: Reconciling program-centric versus product-centric operating models. National security customers often seek bespoke solutions to very specific problems versus an “out of the box” commercial offering. With limited access to classified information and other sources of insight, tech firms can struggle to understand the precise nature of these problems. The effort to tailor an existing solution to the “last mile” in defense may also not be compatible with the commercial scale business models favored by tech companies. Building a go-to-market muscle for defense markets. New defense tech companies can be constrained by unfamiliarity with the government sales and contracting landscape. Scaling a solution in defense markets requires a robust government affairs operation and an understanding of unique government procurement processes. Start-ups, in particular, often lack a track record of performing on programs of record at defense agencies, which can be an important requirement for winning new contracts. Aligning revenue timelines with investor expectations. Government contracting often offers an atypical return profile to private capital (such as VCs and growth equity) that has become the primary backer of defense tech start-ups. Private investors tend to look at three- to five-year horizons for returns—which can be out of sync with the slower (traditionally seven- to ten-year) pace of defense programs of record. A start-up may run short on funding before consistent revenue from government contracts begins to materialize. This mismatch is likely to deter private investment. Public markets are unlikely to fill this gap entirely, given their emphasis on short-term results and an aerospace and defense investor base that often emphasizes stable cash flows versus at-risk investments in novel technologies. Meanwhile, governmental entities in Europe and the United States generally invest less in innovation than their private sector counterparts: for example, the US national security community has recently been spending less than 5 percent of its total budget on developing innovative technologies, whereas a typical commercial technology firm spends three to four times that share of revenue annually.9 -------- from prototyping resources onwards, can make the difference on time to market. Lower barriers by leveraging more established partners. Once a product’s validity has been demonstrated, partnership with an established industrial defense company could facilitate its entry to market. Established suppliers can bring installed bases, mission expertise, and customer familiarity that complements tech companies’ capabilities. Established suppliers often shape access to the aircraft, land systems, and ships that new mission systems will be integrated into by providing the “socket” into which a disruptor’s “lightbulbs” can plug. The list of recent partnership announcements between defense tech disruptors and traditional defense organizations span hardware and software across a range of technology focus areas, including 5G, hypersonic aircraft, autonomy for next-generation tactical aircraft, AI, and edge networks.10 Take, for example, defense disruptor, Helsing, which was able to get to a program of record in fewer than three years by partnering with an existing defense prime (Saab). Helsing’s AI and signal processing expertise complemented Saab’s hardware-based sensors and self-protection systems. As a result of the two companies growing closer, Saab in September 2023 made a sizeable investment of €75 million in Helsing’s most recent venture round, at an overall valuation of €1.5 billion.11 Go dual use. Purely can struggle to achieve scale defense-focused start-ups before investors become frustrated with delays. But, companies that find nonmilitary applications for their technologies can build scale in commercial markets, while buying the time needed to secure a long-term defense contract. However, pursuing dual-use innovations may also mean designing a two-speed business model to accommodate disparate timelines and unique international security requirements. Strong demand and healthy capital inflows have allowed certain dual-use tech organizations to thrive. Private investors, who have a higher tolerance for risk than public markets or government R&D appropriators, in many cases are looking to back dual-use technology, given its large potential returns and broad applicability.12 Vertically integrate to provide software and hardware in one solution. Defense customers generally are comfortable with purchasing integrated hardware and software products, rather than stand-alone software capabilities that can be applied to a range of hardware. For tech disruptors, opting to sell a piece of differentiated software packaged within hardware can be beneficial (for example, a fleet of ready-to-deploy drones rather than a drone operating system). Tailor sales capabilities to the customer. Selling to defense customers can be a challenge if a company hasn’t set up a government affairs unit with proper clearances and extensive experience. Tech companies can look beyond a defense organization’s broad requests for proposals and focus on communicating with potential customers about granular needs. Defense oriented technology is a vital and enduring component of national security. Start-ups, scaled commercial organizations, traditional defense contractors, and investors all have roles to play in integrating innovative new technologies into the defense ecosystem. How relevant and useful is this article for you? About the author(s) Jesse Klempner is a partner in McKinsey’s Washington, DC, office and a leader in McKinsey’s Aerospace & Defense Practice; Christian Rodriguez is an associate partner in the Washington, DC, office; Dale Swartz is a partner in the Bay Area–Silicon Valley office and a leader in the Aerospace & Defense and Tech Practices. The authors wish to thank Bo Julie Crowley, Alyssa Goessler, Karl Hujsak, and Chester Pennock for their contributions to this article. ------- https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/63e9e8f88fa8f5050ee37d10/rhc-neurotechnology-regulation.pdf Neurotechnology Regulation The Regulatory Horizons Council November 2022 he UK is very well placed to deliver on the potential of neurotechnology. Its thriving research ecosystem, recognised ethical research frameworks and centralised health service provide a valuable platform to develop, launch and assess new neurotechnologies. Nonetheless, almost 60% of respondents of a survey conducted by the Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN) rated ‘difficulty navigating the regulatory pathway’ as a moderate or major barrier to commercialisation. We therefore very much welcome this report by the Regulatory Horizons Council (RHC) on neurotechnology regulation. Regulation does not necessarily have to be a barrier to innovation. It can also be a key enabler. By addressing early on the challenges neurotechnology could pose in the future, the UK government has an opportunity to guide the development of the sector and unlock the potential of neurotechnology, on an equitable basis, so that it can benefit society as a whole. With its report, the RHC builds upon the vision outlined by KTN in its ‘Transformative Roadmap for Neurotechnology in the UK.’ We think the RHC’s recommendations will help establish a proportionate regulatory framework across medical and non- medical neurotechnologies that will encourage their rapid and safe development and commercialisation in the UK. We also welcome the RHC’s proposals for -------- RHC Report on Neurotechnology Regulation 35 Recommendation 6: The MHRA, Approved Bodies and the NHS should work together to establish a sandbox programme for neurotechnology devices in the UK. Drawing on experiences from the Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) Sandbox Programme92, the NHS Testbeds Programme93, and the DiGA94 (Digitale Gesundheitsanwendungen, ‘Digital Health Applications’) fast-track scheme in Germany, the suggested sandbox programme would provide an environment in which regulators and manufacturers can collaborate in a pre-competitive space to facilitate safe harbour discussions concerning neurotechnologies that do not have a well- trodden regulatory pathway and where the ability of MHRA to directly provide advice may be more limited. Promising innovative devices that meet the essential safety requirements could be made available to patients on a small scale and during a one-to-two-year period, whilst data are generated to determine medical benefit. During this period, manufacturers could be reimbursed for the use of their devices and be issued a ‘comfort from enforcement’ notice, indicating that there will not be immediate regulatory action over any breaches of the existing medical devices regulations, as long as there is continuous engagement and communication between the manufacturer and the regulators, and any breaches are notified immediately. Similar to the FDA Breakthrough Device Designation,95 eligible manufacturers would also benefit from 92 In 2019, ICO launched its sandbox programme. Participants of the sandbox programme can expect not to be immediately prosecuted for any breaches in the data protection framework as long as a collaborative and cooperative dialogue is maintained with the ICO Sandbox Team. Participants also benefit from receiving tailored support and advice from ICO experts to embed ‘data protection by design.’ The programme is open to all organisations that intend to develop innovative services that use personal data, but ICO publishes the areas of focus they would be interested in working on to guide applications. For more information see https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/regulatory-sandbox/the-guide-to-the-sandbox/ 93 NHS Test Beds are partnerships between businesses and NHS organisations (which can also include academia, local government and the third sector) that are established to test combinations of innovations (digital products and services) in a real clinical setting, improving patient care at the same or less cost. For further information see https://www.england.nhs.uk/aac/what-we-do/how-can-the-aac-help-me/test- beds/nhs-test-beds-programme/ 94 In Germany, patients are reimbursed when they purchase a Digital Health Application listed on the DiGA directorate. To be in the directorate, candidate applications need to prove they meet the necessary security, functionality, quality, data protection, data security and interoperability requirements as well as having a CE mark. They also need to prove they have a medical benefit but, even if they cannot, they can still enter the directorate for a period of 1 year (max 2) until the benefit is established through a comparative study. For further information see: DiGA and The Fast-Track Process for Digital Health Applications (DiGA) according to Section 139e SGB V (German FIDMD Guidance) 95 In the US, some medical devices are eligible for the FDA’s BDD, i.e. when a device provides more effective treatment or diagnosis of life-threatening or irreversibly debilitating human disease or conditions and meets one of the following criteria: 1) it represents breakthrough technology; 2) no approved or cleared alternatives exist; 3) it offers significant advantages over existing approved or cleared alternatives; or 4) its availability is in the best interest of the patient. Beneficiaries of this exemption can enjoy expedited engagement with the FDA (including sprint discussions and engagement with senior management), receive help drafting a data development plan that may allow for more post-market over pre-market data collection, guidance on more efficient and flexible design of clinical studies, and priority review of submissions. For further information see: Breakthrough Devices Program and Breakthrough Devices Program FDA Guidance 2018 ---------- https://thymia.ai/ 134 Council of Europe (2021). Common Human Rights Challenges Raised by Neurotechnologies in the Biomedical Field. 135 Carrillo-Reid, L., Han, S., Yang, W., Akrouh, A., & Yuste, R. (2019). Controlling visually guided behavior by holographic recalling of cortical ensembles. Cell, 178(2), 447-457. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867419306166 136 Council of Europe (2021). Common Human Rights Challenges Raised by Neurotechnologies in the Biomedical Field Stampacchia, S., et al. (2022). Fingerprinting of brain disease: Connectome identifiability in cognitive decline and neurodegeneration. bioRxiv. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.02.04.479112v1.abstract & Finn, E. S., et al. (2015). Functional connectome fingerprinting: identifying individuals using patterns of brain connectivity. Nature neuroscience, 18(11), 1664-1671. https://www.nature.com/articles/nn.4135! 141 IBM (2021). Privacy And The Connected Mind. https://fpf.org/blog/how-neurotechnology-can-benefit- society-while-leading-with-privacy-and-ethics/ There are exceptions in the instance of anonymised data and considerations around pseudonymised data. In these cases, whether data are classed as personal depends on the likelihood of reidentification. For further information see ICO (2022). Draft Anonymisation, Pseudonymisation and Privacy Enhancing Technologies guidance. Chapter 3: Pseudonymisation. https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/ico-and- stakeholder-consultations/ico-call-for-views-anonymisation-pseudonymisation-and-privacy-enhancing- technologies-guidance/ 147 ICO. Guide to the UK General Data Protection Regulation (UK GDPR). https://ico.org.uk/for- organisations/guide-to-data-protection/guide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr/key- definitions/what-is-personal-data/ 148 Rainey, S., McGillivray, K., Akintoye, S., Fothergill, T., Bublitz, C., & Stahl, B. (2020). Is the European Data Protection Regulation sufficient to deal with emerging data concerns relating to neurotechnology? Journal of Law and the Biosciences, 7(1), lsaa051. https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsaa051. 149 IBM (2021). Privacy and the Connected Mind. 150 This is on top of the lawful basis for processing captured in Article 6. Moreover, five of the conditions captured in Article 9 of the GDPR also require meeting additional conditions set out in the Data Protection Act (2018). 151 Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (United Kingdom General Data Protection Regulation). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/eur/2016/679 152 Data Protection Act 2018. Schedule 1. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2018/12/schedule/1/enacted Council of Europe (2021). Common Human Rights Challenges Raised by Neurotechnologies in the Biomedical Field. 156 Discussion of mental autonomy and integrity is distinct from debates around free will, a concept about which many neuroscientists are sceptical. Mental integrity is best understood as supporting agency i.e. the ability to act on the basis of one’s own thoughts and reasoning. 157 Council of Europe (2021). Common Human Rights Challenges Raised by Neurotechnologies in the Biomedical Field. 158 Carrillo-Reid, L., Han, S., Yang, W., Akrouh, A., & Yuste, R. (2019). Controlling visually guided behavior by holographic recalling of cortical ensembles. Cell, 178(2), 447-457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2019.05.045 159 Fernández, E., et al. (2021). Visual percepts evoked with an intracortical 96-channel microelectrode array inserted in human occipital cortex. The Journal of clinical investigation, 131(23). https://www.jci.org/articles/view/151331 160 Shelchkova, N. D., et al. (2022). Microstimulation of human somatosensory cortex evokes task- dependent, spatially patterned responses in motor cortex. bioRxiv. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.08.10.503543v1#:~:text=Intracortical%20microstimulation% 20(ICMS)%20of%20somatosensory,via%20brain%20controlled%20bionic%20hands. 161 Sitaram, R., Ros, T., Stoeckel, L. et al. (2017). Closed-loop brain training: the science of neurofeedback. Nat Rev Neurosci 18, 86–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.164 ----- Norori, N., Hu, Q., Aellen, F. M., Faraci, F. D., & Tzovara, A. (2021). Addressing bias in big data and AI for health care: A call for open science. Patterns, 2(10), 100347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2021.100347 167 Nonetheless, automated decision-making may be allowed when the decision is necessary for a contract, it is authorised by law or it is based on the individual’s explicit consent. For further information, see: ICO. Automated decision-making and profiling. https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-data- protection/guide-to-the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr/automated-decision-making-and-profiling/ 168 ICO. Guide to the UK General Data Protection Regulation (UK GDPR). Rights related to automated decision-making including profiling. https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/guide-to-data-protection/guide-to- the-general-data-protection-regulation-gdpr/individual-rights/rights-related-to-automated-decision-making- including-profiling/ 169 Anita van Mil et al. (2019) From our brain to the world: views on the future of neural interfaces. Hopkins Van Mil. https://royalsociety.org/-/media/policy/projects/ihuman/public-engagement-full-report.pdf?la=en- GB&hash=5B6417E1881961853318F4CD570CA07A Eliza Strickland & Mark Harris (2022). Their Bionic Eyes Are Now Obsolete and Unsupported. IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/bionic-eye-obsolete 172 MHRA (2021) Consultation on the future regulation of medical devices in the United Kingdom. Chapter 8, Section 48. 173 UNESCO (2022). Chile: Pioneering the protection of neurorights. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/chile- pioneering-protection-neurorights & Senado Republica de Chile (2021). Protección de los neuroderechos: inédita legislación va a la Sala. https://www.senado.cl/proteccion-de-los-neuroderechos-a-un-paso-de- pasar-a-segundo-tramite ------ https://www.czdefence.com/article/how-will-neurotechnology-transform-the-military-sector#:~:text=Initial%20efforts%20to%20establish%20legal%20and%20ethical,in%20the%20first%20global%20neuroprotection%20this%20year. How will neurotechnology transform the military sector? 26. 01. 2025 category: Topic facebook sharing button twitter sharing button sharethis sharing button linkedin sharing button reddit sharing button whatsapp sharing button messenger sharing button email sharing button Neurotechnologies, particularly brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), have the potential to rewrite the rules of warfare and global security. Let's take a look together at how neurotechnologies will transform the military sector. a study published in 2022 by the prestigious Cambridge University Press, which analyses possible scenarios for the commercial and military deployment of neurotechnology in the US and China, is certainly worthy of attention. The authors of the study, Margaret Kosal and Joy Putney of the Georgia Institute of Technology, provide a detailed assessment of the geopolitical, ethical and technological aspects associated with the development of this breakthrough technology. What does this study highlight most? 1. Geopolitical competition between the US and China The study identifies the US and China as major players in military neurotechnology. The United States benefits from a technological lead, large-scale investment and the innovative approach of start-ups and universities. China, on the other hand, benefits from centralised management of research and rapid deployment of innovations into practice. Its society is more willing to adopt new technologies, which can accelerate their implementation. 2. Potential arms race The race to develop neurotechnologies could significantly affect the global balance of power. Neurotechnologies such as BCI could offer military advantages such as faster decision-making, more effective coordination, and greater soldier resilience. The authors warn that a lack of regulation could lead to the misuse of these technologies and escalate tensions between major powers. 3. Ethical and legal challenges The study highlights the need for international legal and ethical frameworks. Without such regulations, neurotechnologies could undermine fundamental human rights, including individual autonomy. Regulations should prevent the use of these technologies to manipulate, monitor or suppress civil liberties. What applications are waiting for us? Although this study does not elaborate much on specific applications, based on my broader research in the field of neurotechnology, I will outline some scenarios and visions of what such an application of neurotechnology in the military sector could look like. At the moment, these are rather speculative visions, which may, however, take on realistic contours over time. 1. Rehabilitation and reintegration of wounded soldiers (expected deployment: 3-5 years) Neuroprostheses and nervous system stimulation are already at an advanced stage of development. Wounded soldiers could regain motor skills or better manage post-traumatic stress thanks to neurotechnologies. This technology could find applications within a few years. ---------- 2. Monitoring of physical and psychological condition (expected deployment: up to 7-10 years) One of the most likely apps to revolutionize soldier health monitoring. While it is already possible to monitor basic parameters such as heart rate, adrenaline levels or fatigue using wearable devices, neurotechnology will allow a much deeper view of a soldier's condition, including monitoring neurophysical signals such as brain activity. The technology will be able to measure not only physical condition, but also emotional and psychological responses, such as reactions to stress or anxiety, in real time. Examples: Advanced psychological monitoring: neurotechnology will provide data on how the soldier reacts to challenging situations, how he copes with psychological stress and how his brain adapts to changes in the environment. Interactive responses: based on these signals, it will be possible to implement automatic stimulation techniques to maintain concentration or calm down, which is not possible with traditional technologies. This combination of physical and psychological monitoring in real time will allow commanders to better plan and adapt combat operations, reducing the risk of exhaustion or psychological problems for troops. 3. Unmanned operations (expected deployment: within 10-15 years) Thanks to neurotechnology, soldiers will be able to control drones and robots with thoughts alone. This technology will not only make operations, but it will also bring entirely new capabilities that current controls via controllers or keyboards do not offer. Examples: Speed of response: thoughts bypass the lengthy process of physically entering commands. Control can be almost instantaneous, which can be crucial in crisis situations, for example when averting an unexpected attack. Linking to autonomous functions: neurotechnology could also enable advanced autonomous functions, where machines respond to the soldier's intent without the need to specify individual steps in detail. For example, a drone could evaluate the thought instruction "explore the area" and autonomously determine the optimal route. 4. Simulation and training (expected deployment : up to 15-20 years) Neurotechnology could replace physical training polygons with realistic simulations of combat situations directly in the mind. Soldiers could thus train crisis response in a safe environment at minimal cost. Examples: Neurotechnology-driven virtual reality: realistic simulations of combat situations where the soldier experiences a crisis "in his mind", which improves stress responses. Based on neurotechnology data, training can be personalized according to the weaknesses and strengths of individual soldiers. Cost Reduction: Significant financial reduction by replacing physical polygons with virtual ones. 5. Increasing cognitive abilities of soldiers (expected deployment: up to 15-25 years) Future neurotechnologies may turn soldiers into "superthinking machines" that can analyse complex situations in fractions of a second. Examples: Accelerated decision-making: soldiers equipped with neurotechnology will be able to process data from drones, satellites and sensors in real time. For example, during combat, they can instantly identify enemy threats and design optimal tactics. Mind projection: instead of physical displays, the implants will allow soldiers to see digital maps, instructions or battle orders right in front of their eyes - or rather, in their minds. Emotion and stress detection: using neurotechnology, stress, fear or fatigue levels could be monitored in real time. The technology could automatically modulate brain activity and ensure that the soldier remains calm and fully focused even in crisis situations. 6. Mental influence on opponents (expected deployment: up to 20-30 years) One of the most controversial and remote options. Purely theoretically, neurotechnology could be used to manipulate the emotions, moods or decision-making of adversaries. For example, electromagnetic stimulation could be used to lower an enemy's morale or influence their strategy. Examples: Affecting mood: precisely targeted electromagnetic waves could manipulate areas of the brain responsible for emotions, such as the amygdala. This could induce feelings of fear, panic or, conversely, apathy, thereby significantly reducing the combat effectiveness of enemy troops. Virtual projection: the use of neurotechnology could allow the manipulation of enemy perceptions. Imagine, for example, sending images, sounds, or even smells directly into an adversary's brain, which could lead to the perception that he is in danger or that his mission is unfeasible. Disinformation: precisely targeted manipulation of memory or decision centers in the brain could confuse the enemy, for example, so that he misinterprets orders, forgets key details, or makes a mistake in strategy. It is important to stress here that this particular scenario is highly speculative, but its fulfilment would nevertheless mark a radical shift in the approach not only to psychological operations. Ethical issues and risks Neurotechnologies bring many positive changes, but also significant ethical challenges. In the future, they may erode human autonomy or be used for manipulation and oppression. It is therefore crucial to develop robust legal and ethical frameworks to ensure that these technologies are not misused. Once neurotechnologies begin to be deployed on a mass scale, their implementation will need to be carefully monitored to ensure that they comply with international standards and legal principles. Initial efforts to establish legal and ethical frameworks are already underway. For example, the scientific section of UNESCO is now working on a muster that should result in the first global neuroprotection this year. Neuroprince is a field that bridges neuroscience and law and is concerned with protecting the rights of individuals from the misuse of neurotechnologies. It aims to ensure the ethical and responsible use of technologies that interact with the human brain and nervous system. ------------ https://www.darpa.mil/research/ideas Before an idea becomes a program, it gets mulled, kicked around, and questioned. During this period of contemplation, our program managers talk – a lot – to experts, potential transition partners, and each other. But we often wonder: What information are we missing that would provide much-needed context for program development? Researchers, end users, and other stakeholders are encouraged to read through our Ideas Under Incubation. If inspired, share your thoughts. *See important disclaimers and notes Information Innovation Office (I2O) AI FORGE: Fostering Research and Growth in Emerging Artificial Intelligence In partnership with the U.S. National Science Foundation, AI FORGE aims to establish an industry/university/government consortium on AI research focused on solving AI critical challenges for national security. The goal is to accelerate adoption by industry and federal agencies. | Contact Program Manager Matthew Marge Microsystems Technology Office (MTO) Cryogenic cooling for future computation What practical and affordable cryogenic refrigeration approaches and techniques are possible to realize potential future computational approaches? What alternatives can be considered? | Contact Program Manager Yogendra Joshi Energy storage to replace batteries How would you conceive of, and domestically produce, stored energy sources with the same or better performance of today’s batteries while avoiding the constraints of current form factors and materials through malleability; conformability; tailorable size, shape, capacity, and/or endurance? | Contact Program Manager Thomas Schratwieser Enhanced Microsystems What are the challenges, potentially new approaches, and anticipated impacts of chemical and biological interactions with microsystems so that microsystems not only survive chemically and biologically harsh treatments but are enhanced by them? | Contact Program Manager Huanan Zhang Increase Complexity of Inorganic Materials What are the materials, properties, processes, and controls necessary to create new inorganic materials with precise composition and structural accuracy to support the development of advanced microsystems? | Contact Program Manager Huanan Zhang Inverse design methodology What are the inverse design approaches and algorithms that can be used to overcome the sequential design process for conventional microelectronics system integration, which generally precludes optimization across all packaging levels? | Contact Program Manager David Meyer Living microsystems for computing, sensing, and control Recent demos of fungal mycelia interfacing with robots open possibilities for living microsystems over conventional computing for control, communications, and sensing. What are fungi’s limits as control elements? Are interfaces a barrier? Can fungi be trained, grown, and propagated? | Contact Program Manager Julian McMorrow Low-loss high permeability and permittivity materials Are there novel materials with high permeability and high permittivity that allow dynamic control to radically change the capability of traditional capacitors, transformers, circuit substrates, electrically small antennas, and other components? | Contact Program Manager Jonathan Hoffman Low-SWaP, high bandwidth HF-UHF antennas/receivers As lower frequency electromagnetic waves typically require large antennas and receive systems, are there novel quantum, photonic, or even classical approaches that can dramatically reduce the size, weight, and power (SWAP) and improve sensitivity over the current state of the art? | Contact Program Manager Jonathan Hoffman Lunar Manufacturing Infrastructure, Energy Generation and Storage A lunar economy will require in-situ resource utilization of lunar-abundant materials. What are the challenges and opportunities in isolating and purifying critical elements from regolith? Can these technologies scale for manufacture? Which energy solutions best suit a lunar environment? | Contact Program Manager Julian McMorrow Medical Microsystems How could internal treatment be administered (such as stopping internal bleeding) without surgery through focused, non-invasive energy delivery with microsystems assisting biological processes? | Contact Program Manager Huanan Zhang Microelectronics advanced packaging What approaches can be applied to overcome the three-dimensional integrated circuit multi-physics design challenges that consider the co-design of electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties while reducing volume and increasing packing density? | Contact Program Manager David Meyer Microelectronics black start Which technologies enable, or challenges hinder, the rapid black-start reconstitution of a new microelectronics manufacturing capability? Can existing supplies be repurposed while capacity is built? Can a clean-slate capability replace traditional with unconventional microsystems? | Contact Program Manager Julian McMorrow Multi-material class integration for microelectronics What are the novel ways to exploit opportunities and overcome challenges when additively integrating disparate material classes and materials with diverse deposition and compliance requirements, yet still maintaining flexibility with close proximity 3D placement? | Contact Program Manager David Meyer Quantum and photonic backend processing Can quantum and integrated photonic technologies dramatically change sensor backend or receiver designs by replacing analog to digital converters, enabling analog processing, improving tunability, and other functions? | Contact Program Manager Jonathan Hoffman Quantum Manufacturing What tools, equipment, processes, and accompanying figures of merit are needed to enable domestic manufacturing of fieldable quantum sensors at scale and address integration and parallelization challenges across heterogeneous and homogeneous systems? | Contact Program Manager Jonathan Hoffman Sequence defined polymer synthesis with molecular machines for microsystems applications What approaches, platforms, and systems could enable synthesis of sequence-defined polymers (e.g., novel synthetic methods and/or molecular machines)? What DoW applications might such macromolecules unlock for catalysts, optical materials, textiles, and microsystems manufacturing? | Contact Program Manager John M. Hoffman Very large-scale photonic integrated circuits (VLPI) What are the automated design tools, co-designed natively-optical algorithms and architectures that can produce future VLPI circuits? How can these platforms achieve revolutionary new commercial and military capabilities that surpass what can be done by current electronic-based platforms? | Contact Program Manager Anna Tauke-Pedretti Disclaimers ------------ https://ifc.usafa.edu/articles/institute-of-future-conflict-2026-threat-horizon-report Institute of Future Conflict 2026 Threat Horizon Report The only thing as important as winning the last war is winning the next one. At the Institute of Future Conflict, we focus on understanding oncoming threats, identifying solutions for them, and ensuring our future leaders will conquer them. As our motto states, Omnes Somniant Sed Non Aequales—all men dream, but not equally. The few that dream and predict with precision become the strategists who shape tomorrow’s battlefields. In our inaugural Threat Horizon report, we asked our military fellows the following question: what is the most pressing issue facing the national security community over the 2026 fiscal year? Our Fellows are specialists drawn from across the Air and Space Forces. They are mentored by academics, industry experts, and retired senior leaders. In this report, they responded with topics covering silicon to soldiers, from Ukraine’s trenches to the high heavens of space. Most importantly, we promise our audience follow-through. In one year’s time for our second Threat Horizon report, not only will we provide a look at what’s coming in 2027, but we will also assess how our 2026 predictions fared and reflect on what reality offered instead. We will be wrong about some threats, right about others, and ready for both. ‍ ‍ Major R. Jake Alleman IFC Fellow, Class of 2025 Cyberspace Operations Officer, USSF Precision at Scale: The Industrialization of Influence Operations The war against American minds will open a new front in 2025. The convergence of China’s massive personal data collection efforts with AI capabilities will create an unprecedented national security threat in the next year: automated social engineering at scale. Countering this threat requires an extensive overhaul of defensive training for US government personnel to recognize and react to industrialized influence operations. China is responsible for some of the most significant data breaches in history. In 2014, they breached Office of Personnel Management networks and stole personnel files of 4.2 million active and former government employees and security clearance information on 21.5 million people. As part of their digital dragnet efforts, Chinese hackers infiltrated every major US telecom operation and siphoned off data for years, theoretically collecting data on every American with a cell phone. They have our personnel files. They have our communications. But they’re also harvesting our digital footprints to complete the picture. TikTok is the most widely used PRC-based data collection tool, building profiles on its 1.59 billion global users (roughly 135.79 million from the US) from “information that [the users] provide, information from other sources, and automatically collected information.” The PRC-based AI company DeepSeek has an estimated 125 million global users, with an enormous market inside the US. Since Chinese law requires companies to provide their data to the government on request, the CCP likely has access to all commercial data as well. This data collection has been ongoing for years. What has changed is AI’s ability to perform social engineering—cyberattacks using psychological manipulation to trick or coerce people into giving up sensitive information or performing actions that compromise security. Historically, social engineering meant choosing between scale (Nigerian Prince emails) or precision (targeted CEO fraud). AI now chooses both. Personal data has become precision munitions. The result transforms social engineering from an art into an assembly line. Once trained, an AI agent can engage on this new front en masse 24/7, 365, learning from its failures and iterating to find the most successful tactics for any category of target at silicon speeds. Personal information uploaded to Chinese apps, old security clearance questionnaires, text messages between family members—imagine an attack that can leverage all of this. Determining what’s real from what’s fake becomes unlikely, if not impossible. Current DoD security theater does not inspire confidence. A one-hour cyber refresher course with minimal social engineering coverage was already insufficient. In this new environment, it will be like trying to stem a flood with a sieve when we need seawalls. To protect their people—and the security interests they represent—US government agencies need to prioritize anti-social engineering training. The PRC has gathered human intelligence through breaches. They’ve collected signals intelligence through telecom infiltration. Now they’re poised to weaponize artificial intelligence to turn our own data against us. The war against American minds is about to go industrial, and we’re still drilling with wooden shields. Major Joseph “Paveway” Bledsoe IFC Fellow, Class of 2025 F-15E Fighter Pilot, USAF The Airpower Paradox: Enforcing a Ukrainian Peace The most significant national security challenge for the coming fiscal year will not be a new conflict, but the fragile task of enforcing a potential ceasefire between Ukraine and Russia. Should hostilities pause, the international community will demand a robust enforcement mechanism. In this context, US and NATO airpower will be presented as the primary tool—a seemingly clean, decisive, and standoff solution. However, this reliance on airpower alone is a strategic trap, creating a paradox where the very instrument of enforcement could become the catalyst for a wider war. An air-centric enforcement strategy would likely involve establishing a No-Fly Zone (NFZ) over designated Ukrainian territories, enforced by NATO combat air patrols operating from allied bases. The mission would be to deter or destroy any Russian military assets violating the terms of the agreement. On the surface, this plays to overwhelming Western strengths, leveraging superior western platforms to dominate the airspace and provide persistent surveillance. The problem with this strategy lacks ground-level credibility and possesses an extremely high potential for miscalculation. An NFZ is not a passive shield; it is an act of continuous aerial combat. Every Russian sortie near the line of demarcation, every surface-to-air missile system activation, and every drone flight would become a tactical decision with strategic, even nuclear, implications. Who determines hostile intent? What are the rules of engagement when a Russian aircraft is escorting a “humanitarian” convoy? A single shoot-down, whether accidental or deliberate, could collapse the peace and trigger a direct NATO-Russia conflict—the very outcome many have spent years trying to avoid. Furthermore, airpower alone cannot verify complex ceasefire terms, such as the withdrawal of specific ground forces or the disarmament of militias. It cannot build trust or separate intertwined populations. This creates a hollow enforcement shell where violations can occur under the cloud cover of a radar screen, breeding resentment and inevitably leading to a resumption of conflict. The central challenge for the next year, therefore, will be resisting the alluringly simple solution of applied airpower and instead focusing on the messy, difficult, but ultimately more stable work of building a peace that doesn't solely depend on a pilot’s trigger finger at 30,000 feet. Major Jacob Draszkiewicz IFC Fellow, Class of 2026 C-17A Pilot, USAF A New Era of Air Defense: America’s Golden Dome and the European Sky Shield Initiative In recent years, we have seen a proliferation of drone warfare on the battlefields of Ukraine and in the Israel-Hamas war. The US homeland has also become subject to drone incursions. This year, the congressional Subcommittee on Military and Foreign Affairs found that in 2024 there were over 350 drone incursions at 100 different military installations. Most recently, in September, NATO countries Poland and Romania also reported drone incursions, with 19 Russian drones entering Poland’s airspace, prompting Warsaw to invoke NATO’s Article 4, requiring emergency consultations. The increased use of low-cost drones is quickly becoming a preferred tool in hybrid warfare. Not only can drones be used to deliver low-cost kinetic strikes, but they are also effective in surveillance and information gathering, disrupting civilian infrastructure, and inciting public fear and political tension. Moving forward, low-cost hybrid drone warfare, complemented by advancements in artificial intelligence, poses a real and immediate challenge to air defense in the US and our European allies. This has sparked a renewed effort to review current air defense system capabilities and modernization efforts to effectively and efficiently counter drones and other threats. America’s Golden Dome Earlier this year, President Trump issued Executive Order 14186 stating, “The threat of attack by ballistic, hypersonic, and cruise missiles, and other advanced aerial attacks, remains the most catastrophic threat facing the United States.” Although drones are not explicitly mentioned, the broader message regarding increased aerial and space-based threats from next-generation strategic weapons underscores the urgent need to overhaul our existing missile defense capabilities with a next-generation missile defense shield. Specific details regarding the Golden Dome initiative are limited, but the Congressional Budget Office estimates the cost to be between $161 billion and $542 billion. America’s Golden Dome initiative could become our generation’s Manhattan Project and demand an unprecedented collective effort by US private defense contractors to develop new technologies and capabilities. The Golden Dome initiative should focus on all domains and threat levels, including counter-drone capabilities. We should use this opportunity to design multi-layered defense architecture that includes modernizing our small unmanned aerial system (sUAS) and drone defense capabilities. European Sky Shield Initiative Since its inception in 2022, the European Sky Shield Initiative (ESSI) has aimed to bolster NATO’s integrated air and missile defense capabilities. Originally led by Germany, the initiative now includes over 20 NATO members, including Poland. The ESSI has quickly become NATO’s collective effort to reinforce and modernize Europe’s air defense. Although this effort is a step in the right direction, the ESSI remains more of a concept than a reality. Germany has made the most progress with its US-approved $3.5 billion deal to purchase Israel’s advanced Arrow 3 missile defense system. Signed in 2023, the deal is the largest defense sale for Israel and provides Germany with a battle-tested air defense system that has showcased its effectiveness in Israel’s robust Iron Dome and in countering Iranian ballistic missiles. However, the Arrow 3 system is less effective against low-flying projectiles like drones and will likely take several years before it is fully operational and integrated into Germany’s air defense. Additionally, Germany and Poland’s current layered air defense systems rely heavily on the US Patriot system, which is neither the most cost-efficient nor practical for countering drones. Hybrid drone warfare poses a significant challenge to US national security both at home and abroad. Modernizing air defense systems that are cost-effective and efficient is critical to countering the evolving threats posed by hybrid drone warfare. The Golden Dome and ESSI initiatives provide the guiding frameworks to address these challenges and maintain a strategic defensive posture at all levels. Lt Col Melissa “Sharpie” McLain IFC Fellow, Class of 2023 Intelligence Officer, USAF Cognitive Combat Training Foreign Malign Influence (FMI) and propaganda are not new forms of warfare. What has changed since the mid-to-late 2000s is the technology available to broadcast these messages; the amount of time users spend captivated by these technologies; and the surgical precision to curate the messages to trigger the audiences’ emotions across multiple mediums in the attention economy. Cognitive manipulation is the next 'big threat' to our way of life and National Security. Adversaries leverage these new technologies and platforms at a speed, scale, and an incredibly affordable price-point to export their mass media manipulation tradecraft to US citizens. These narratives exploit openness in the US democratic system, Americans’ way of living, and the freedoms provided by the US Constitution. Adversaries masterfully craft emotionally charged social media content, driving wedges, sowing chaos and confusion on critical issues. For example, leading up to the Foreign Aid Package approval in April 2024, Russian actors flooded the media with carefully curated content to polarize decision makers and American support. These narratives ranged from comparing US involvement in Ukraine to Vietnam and Afghanistan, while at the same time creating media to amplify the border crisis within the US. These narratives trigger strong emotions like shame and anger, dampening senior decision makers’ initiative to reframe the narrative, while stoking concern amongst citizens of all generations. At the same time, Russian actors amplified border crisis incidents with partially fabricated video content showing increased crime rates as well as food and job shortages. The border crisis narrative stoked chaos within the population, driving citizens into a feeling of scarcity, which triggered survival responses and fueled a distrust in governmental decisions. The change in technology now affords the adversary the ability to incessantly target and shape the subconscious thoughts of individual US citizens. In response to this problem, we investigated what skills need to be developed to thwart the threat from FMI and propaganda proliferation on media platforms. The answer resulted in developing a concept like the risk management process foundational to Operational Security (OPSEC) but with a twist. Instead of protecting mission critical information Cognitive Security (COGSEC) strives to protect the cognitive processes of the individual from cognitive manipulation. COGSEC refers to practices, methodologies, and efforts made to safeguard cognitive processes ranging from awareness, perception, sensemaking, all the way to decision making. Misinformation and disinformation fueled by addictive social media design to capture attention pose the most significant threats to cognitive security and global stability, with increased calls for education programs to better prepare the 21st century workforce to build resiliency against dis- and misinformation. Media literacy and critical thinking programs have emerged as a promising avenue for building out such resiliency, but the research community has yet to reach consensus on key tenets of successful media literacy programs, and the efficacy of such curriculum has proven difficult to assess. To address this research gap, we developed Wellness and Independence in the Social Media Era (WISE), which is a human factors-based educational program that equips individuals with Cognitive Security skills to recognize and mitigate the effects of disinformation. WISE is an experiential-based curriculum that educates participants to identify, systematically evaluate, and counter disinformation in their environment. The Wellness and Independence in the Social Media Era (WISE) education program equips students with Cognitive Security skills, providing frameworks and toolkits for how to deliberately think through controversial topics commonly steeped in dis- and misinformation. The ‘attention economy’ we live in today profits from the time users spend on a given social media application, thereby motivating the designers to leverage human factors principles for bad purposes, namely addictive design features referred to as ‘dark patterns’. By recognizing how ‘dark patterns’ use HF-principles and the associated cognitive consequences, the WISE program developers created a holistic approach beyond media literacy skills to include metacognition, emotional intelligence, civil discourse, and storytelling. Major Matthew “Niner” Smokovitz IFC Fellow, Class of 2026 Space Operations Officer, USSF The Commercial Sky is the New High Ground In February 2022, commercial satellite images from Maxar Technologies showed Russian armor massing on Ukraine’s border—and then driving toward Kyiv. These images were available to journalists, allies, and civilians alike. Moscow lost the element of surprise not because of classified intelligence, but because of commercial space. That moment revealed something profound: the commercial sky has become the decisive high ground of modern security. Ukraine makes this reality clear. Its forces rely daily on commercial satellites for imagery, communications, and targeting. Without them, Kyiv would be blind. In early 2025, when the US briefly paused Maxar’s imagery support, Ukrainian drone strikes and artillery fire faltered almost immediately. Analysts called the pause “catastrophic,” linking it to battlefield failures and rising casualties. Commercial partnerships are not supplemental—they are essential. But dependence cuts both ways. Starlink sustained Ukraine’s communications when Russian cyberattacks crippled national networks. At the same time, Moscow struck Starlink ground terminals and jammed uplinks. Commercial space became both shield and target, lifeline and liability. Taiwan is the next test. Its defense hinges on spotting Chinese amphibious forces early and striking them fast. Without overhead visibility, Taipei cannot match Beijing’s tempo. In such a conflict, the US and its allies would lean on commercial radar satellites—able to see through clouds and darkness—and on commercial communications constellations to sustain dispersed forces across the Pacific. Beijing understands this. It is building jammers, lasers, and cyber tools aimed not only at US military satellites but also at the commercial networks Washington depends on. By targeting or intimidating these providers, China could fracture US power projection without firing a shot. The trend stretches beyond Europe and Asia. In the Persian Gulf, shipping firms now buy satellite imagery to monitor Iranian naval movements. Non-state actors purchase the same data. Strategic awareness—once reserved for nation-states—is now for sale. This democratization of transparency reshapes deterrence and complicates escalation control. Commercial space is also a legal challenge. Under the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, states remain responsible for the companies they license. But what happens if a Chinese laser blinds a US-licensed satellite over Taiwan? Or if US commercial imagery directly enables a Ukrainian strike? These gaps create uncertainty adversaries can exploit. Equally critical is corporate power itself. In Ukraine, Maxar and Starlink shaped battlefield outcomes through boardroom decisions as much as battlefield actions. When corporations hold veto authority over wartime support, national security collides with private incentives. Other disruptive technologies—artificial intelligence, hypersonic weapons, electronic warfare—matter deeply, but none matches the immediacy of commercial space. AI requires integration into command systems. Hypersonic missiles are costly and scarce. Electronic warfare is powerful but geographically bound. By contrast, commercial constellations already span the globe, already outpace state systems in transparency, and are already accessible to allies, adversaries, and civilians alike. This is why commercial space is the defining national security trend of 2025—and why it will remain decisive in 2026. It democratizes awareness, accelerates targeting, and gives corporations unprecedented influence over the tempo of war. No other domain hands so much power simultaneously to militaries and markets. The path forward is clear. The Pentagon must lock in commercial partnerships with wartime guarantees, secure data pipelines against disruption, and build surge-launch capacity now. Failure would mean ceding the high ground—not through lack of weapons, but through lack of vision. In the contests ahead, the victor will not be the side with the most satellites, but the side that best controls the shared, conditional, and contested sky of the commercial high ground. The views expressed are those of the author and do not reflect the official policy or position of the US Air Force, the US Space Force, the Department of War, or the US government. -------- https://www.darpa.mil/research/programs/next-generation-nonsurgical-neurotechnology#:~:text=Summary,for%20able%2Dbodied%20service%20members. N3: Next-Generation Nonsurgical Neurotechnology Summary The Next-Generation Nonsurgical Neurotechnology (N3) program aims to develop high-performance, bi-directional brain-machine interfaces for able-bodied service members. Such interfaces would be enabling technology for diverse national security applications such as control of unmanned aerial vehicles and active cyber defense systems or teaming with computer systems to successfully multitask during complex military missions. Whereas the most effective, state-of-the-art neural interfaces require surgery to implant electrodes into the brain, N3 technology would not require surgery and would be man-portable, thus making the technology accessible to a far wider population of potential users. Noninvasive neurotechnologies such as the electroencephalogram and transcranial direct current stimulation already exist, but do not offer the precision, signal resolution, and portability required for advanced applications by people working in real-world settings. The envisioned N3 technology breaks through the limitations of existing technology by delivering an integrated device that does not require surgical implantation, but has the precision to read from and write to 16 independent channels within a 16mm3 volume of neural tissue within 50ms. Each channel is capable of specifically interacting with sub-millimeter regions of the brain with a spatial and temporal specificity that rivals existing invasive approaches. Individual devices can be combined to provide the ability to interface to multiple points in the brain at once. To enable future non-invasive brain-machine interfaces, N3 researchers are working to develop solutions that address challenges such as the physics of scattering and weakening of signals as they pass through skin, skull, and brain tissue, as well as designing algorithms for decoding and encoding neural signals that are represented by other modalities such as light, acoustic, or electro-magnetic energy. ---------- https://www.seedtable.com/best-neurotechnology-startups Seedtable logo Mentioned on: Wired TechCrunch TechCrunch Sign Up 69 Best Neurotechnology Startups to Watch in 2026 The Definitive Seedtable Ranking of Neurotechnology Startups We track 71,000+ companies and rank them dynamically using our Seedtable Score – a score that uses quantitative and qualitative data points to signal the momentum behind a company. We then monitor the list manually leveraging our expertise as founders and investors. There are 84 start-ups with an aggregate funding of $4.1b. The average funding per company in this subset is $59.2m. Last update to the database: Jan 6, 2026. See changelog. Location: Industry: Track over 71,000 companies Discover Fast-growing Global startups Seedtable uses technology and people to track over 71,000 companies to help you find the right ones to partner with. Pricing + Sign up Neuralink logo Neuralink 4 Funding Rounds $964.2m Money raised Neuralink is a company that develops brain-computer interface (BCI) devices to assist people with paralysis and blindness and technologies that may expand the abilities of humans. Industries: Robotics Artificial Intelligence (AI) Software Location: San Francisco Key people: Elon Musk linkedin Max Hodak ******@maxhodak.com Paul Merolla Paradromics logo Paradromics 3 Funding Rounds $34.0m Money raised Paradromics is an Austin, Texas-based company developing a high-volume bidirectional data streaming capabilities between brains and computers. Industries: Technology Healthcare Medicine Location: San Jose, California Austin, Texas Key people: Matt Angle (Entrepreneur) ******@paradromics.com Synchron logo Synchron 4 Funding Rounds $325.0m Money raised Synchron, Inc. is a technology company building implantable neural interface solutions, including endovascular brain-computer interface. Industries: Big data Biomedical engineering Neurotechnology Location: San Francisco Brooklyn United States Key people: Nicholas Opie Thomas Oxley ******@synchron.com Cala Health logo Cala Health 3 Funding Rounds $145.0m Money raised Cala Health offers bioelectronic medicines, medical devices, and neurotherapeutics for managing chronic health conditions. Industries: Neuroscience Connected Devices Healthcare Location: Burlingame, California Key people: Kate Rosenbluth ****.**********@calahealth.com Proportunity logo Proportunity 3 Funding Rounds $12.1m Money raised Artificial Intelligence company and FCA authorized mortgage lender in the UK helping renters purchase their first homes. Industries: Brain-computer interface Machine learning Artificial Intelligence (AI) Location: London Key people: Stefan Adrian Boronea ******.*******@proportunity.com Vadim Toader *****.******@proportunity.com Neurable logo Neurable 7 Funding Rounds $46.0m Money raised A brain-computer interface company building software and hardware products, neurotechnology tools that interpret human intent, measure emotion and provide telekinetic control of the digital world based on EEG signals. Industries: Virtual reality Augmented reality Neuroscience Location: Boston Cambridge, Massachusetts Key people: Adam Molnar ****@neurable.com James Hamet linkedin Ramses Alcaide ****@neurable.com BIOS Health Ltd logo BIOS Health Ltd 5 Funding Rounds $10.1m Money raised A full-stack neural interface company. BIOS is creating a hardware and software interface between the human nervous system and AI with the aim of developing AI-based neural treatments that recreate neural signal patterns capable of affecting the health of a person. Industries: Analytics Machine learning Artificial Intelligence (AI) Location: Cambridge, Cambridgeshire Key people: Emil Hewage linkedin Oliver Armitage linkedin Flow Neuroscience logo Flow Neuroscience 2 Funding Rounds $2.6m Money raised Flow Neuroscience is a Malmo, Sweden-based medical technology company developing treatments for mental health issues. The company offers a medication-free depression treatment that combines a brain stimulation wearable and an app-based therapy program. Industries: Healthcare Mental health Medical device Location: Malmö Key people: Daniel Månsson ******@flowneuroscience.com Halo Neuroscience logo Halo Neuroscience 1 Funding Rounds $13.0m Money raised Halo Neuroscience develops devices that use neurostimulation technology to target the brain to enhance performance for able and impaired users. Industries: Brain-computer interface Connected Devices Neurostimulation Location: San Francisco Key people: Lee von Kraus, PhD Brett Wingeier Daniel Chao InteraXon logo InteraXon 4 Funding Rounds $28.8m Money raised InteraXon develops and produces brain-sensing technology such as the Muse headband, an EEG device that interprets mental activity and aims to help with meditation and promote calmness. Industries: Wearable technology Consumer electronics Neurotechnology Location: Toronto Canada Key people: Chris Aimone *****@musehealth.ai Trevor Coleman linkedin Ariel Garten *****@choosemuse.com WiBotic logo WiBotic 5 Funding Rounds $18.4m Money raised WiBotic is a technology company specializing in wireless charging and power optimization solutions. Industries: Robotics Wireless Power engineering Location: Seattle United States Key people: Joshua Smith ***@cs.uw.edu Ben Waters (entrepreneur) ***.******@wibotic.com Motorica logo Motorica 4 Funding Rounds $5.8m Money raised Motorika, a Russian developer and manufacturer of robotic functional traction and bionic arm prostheses for children and adults Industries: Brain-computer interface Neurotechnology Neuroscience Location: Moscow Key people: Ilya Chekh **@motorica.org Vasiliy Khlebnikov linkedin Koniku (company) logo Koniku (company) 3 Funding Rounds $1.7m Money raised A startup that is building microprocessor and other types of chips with wetware biological neurons. It has applications in sensing, control and computation. Industries: Neuroscience Neurotechnology Biotechnology Location: San Rafael, California Key people: Salys Christina Verge Genomics logo Verge Genomics 5 Funding Rounds $134.1m Money raised Verge Genomics is a company focused on the discovery and development of drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases with the use of machine learning and computational genomics. Industries: Neurotechnology Neuroscience Drug discovery Location: United States South San Francisco, California San Francisco Key people: Jason Chen *****@vergegenomics.com Alice Zhang *****@vergegenomics.com BrainCo logo BrainCo 3 Funding Rounds $6.0m Money raised A company utilizing BMI and Neurofeedback to optimize brain potential. Industries: Wearable technology Healthcare Consumer biotechnology Location: Massachusetts Somerville, Massachusetts Boston Key people: Bicheng Han *******.***@brainco.tech Neuroelectrics logo Neuroelectrics 2 Funding Rounds $35.9m Money raised Neuroelectrics provides devices and technology for EEG-based brain monitoring, brain stimulation, home therapy research and head modeling. The company manufacturers the StarStim a neuro-stimulator using the Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS). Industries: Biosensor Big data Biomedical engineering Location: Barcelona Key people: Ana Maiques ***.*******@neuroelectrics.com Giulio Ruffini twitter Ekso Bionics logo Ekso Bionics 5 Funding Rounds $70.9m Money raised Ekso Bionics is a Richmond, California-based company founded in 2005 by Homayoon Kazerooni, Nathan Harding, Russ Angold and Max Scheder-Bieschin. Industries: Powered exoskeleton Biotechnology Biomedical engineering Location: Richmond, California Key people: Homayoon Kazerooni Jack Peurach linkedin Russ Angold twitter Neurofenix logo Neurofenix 2 Funding Rounds $14.0m Money raised Neurofenix invented the NeuroBall, an intelligent controller for special video games, aimed at making stroke rehabilitation fun. Industries: Neuroscience Video game Rehabilitation Location: London Key people: Guillem Singla Buxarrais *******@neurofenix.com Theranica logo Theranica 3 Funding Rounds $86.0m Money raised Theranica is a Netanya-based biomedical technology company focused on developing electronic devices and wireless communication technology. Industries: Technology Biotechnology Biomedical engineering Location: Netanya Montclair, New Jersey Key people: Alon Ironi *****@theranica.com Ronen Jashek ******@theranica.com Rostislav Barabash MindMaze SA logo MindMaze SA 1 Funding Rounds $100.0m Money raised MindMaze is a neurotechnology company designing and developing virtual reality medical products to stimulate neural recovery. Industries: Virtual reality Neuroscience Medical device Location: Lausanne Key people: Tej Tadi ***.****@mindmaze.com Cadence logo Cadence 3 Funding Rounds $130.0m Money raised Cadence is a company founded in 1998. Industries: Engineering Translation Neuroscience Location: New York Winfield, Illinois Redmond, Washington NextMind logo NextMind 2 Funding Rounds $9.2m Money raised A company developing a noninvasive, EEG-based brain-computer interface geared to the mass market. Industries: Neurotechnology Big data Brain-computer interface Location: France Paris Key people: Sune Alstrup Johansen linkedin David Helgason linkedin Sid Kouider twitter Q30 Innovations logo Q30 Innovations 2 Funding Rounds $12.3m Money raised Q30 Innovations is a medical device company developing a device, the Q-Collar, that aims to offer the brain protection from head injuries. Industries: Neuroscience Big data Brain-computer interface Location: Westport, Connecticut Wilton, Connecticut Connecticut Key people: Bruce Angus *****@q30.com Thomas Hoey *****@q30.com Altoida logo Altoida 3 Funding Rounds $26.3m Money raised Creating a New Gold Standard in Brain Health With Precision Neurology. Industries: Digital health Augmented reality Medical device Location: Washington (state) Key people: Adrian Locher **@alo.ag Ioannis Tarnanas *******.********@altoida.com Fabian Wahle linkedin Mindstrong Health logo Mindstrong Health 4 Funding Rounds $160.0m Money raised Mindstrong Health is a neuroscience precision therapy company founded in 2014 by Paul Dagum. Industries: Health information technology Health Healthcare Location: Menlo Park, California Key people: Paul Dagum ****@dagum.us Inbrain Neuroelectronics logo Inbrain Neuroelectronics 5 Funding Rounds $89.6m Money raised High-density and high-resolution graphene intelligent neural systems provider for central and peripheral neuroelectronic applications for neurological treatment. Industries: Biomedical engineering Neurotechnology Health Care and Social Assistance Location: Barcelona Key people: Carolina Aguilar ********@inbrain-neuroelectronics.com Jose Garrido ********@inbrain-neuroelectronics.com NeuroTronik logo NeuroTronik 1 Funding Rounds $23.1m Money raised NeuroTronik is a company that develops neurostimulation therapeutic devices which are designed to treat acute heart failure syndrome. Industries: Neurostimulation Internal medicine Cardiology Location: Durham, North Carolina Key people: William Starling Saluda Medical logo Saluda Medical 2 Funding Rounds $140.0m Money raised Saluda Medical is a commercial-stage medical device company that develops treatments for chronic neurological conditions. Industries: Biomedical engineering Neurotechnology Medical device Location: Bloomington, Minnesota Key people: John Parker Thync logo Thync 3 Funding Rounds $1.3m Money raised Thync has developed a small, wearable 'œpod' that attaches to the back of the neck and uses neurostimulation to combat stress and promote better sleep. Their lead product, the Thync Relax Pro, uses low levels of electrical stimulation to activate nerve pathways in the head and neck. According to the company, these pathways communicate with areas of the brain to help control stress levels and sleep quality. The product is targeted towards consumers who frequently suffer from stress and consequently struggle to sleep. Industries: Healthcare Consumer electronics Big data Location: California San Francisco Los Gatos, California Key people: Jamie Tyler Isy Goldwasser ***********@scripps.edu Winterlight Labs logo Winterlight Labs 1 Funding Rounds $4.2m Money raised A company making voice recognition products capable of detecting cognitive decline and cognitive impairment based on samples of speech. Industries: Voice recognition Elderly care Gerontechnology Location: Toronto Ontario Canada Key people: Michael Dibernardo Sasha Sirotkin Jekaterina Novikova AlterG logo AlterG 4 Funding Rounds $27.3m Money raised Anti-gravity treadmill Industries: Equipment Engineering Technology Location: Fremont, California Key people: Ed Liou Brent Looney Bioserenity logo Bioserenity 6 Funding Rounds $189.7m Money raised Bioserenity is an epilepsy Diagnosis founded in 2014 by Pierre Frouin. Industries: Neuroscience Technology Health technology Location: Paris Key people: Pierre Frouin ******.******@bioserenity.com SetPoint Medical logo SetPoint Medical 3 Funding Rounds $200.6m Money raised A company developing implantable devices to treat inflammatory diseases Industries: Biomedical engineering Neurotechnology Biopharmaceutical Location: Valencia Valencia, Santa Clarita, California Learning to Sleep logo Learning to Sleep 2 Funding Rounds $2.5m Money raised Learning To Sleep offers a range of clinically-proven sleep improvement programs. Industries: Digital therapeutics Sleep Sleep aid Location: Malmö Ceribell logo Ceribell 2 Funding Rounds $88.0m Money raised Ceribel is a Sunnyvale, California-based medical device company aiming to improve neurological care for emergency and ICU patients by making electroencephalogram (EEG) technology more accessible and efficient. Industries: Neuroscience Biotechnology Biomedical engineering Location: San Francisco Mountain View, California Mountain View, Contra Costa County, California Key people: Xingjuan Chao *****@ceribell.com Josef Parvizi *****@ceribell.com SyncThink logo SyncThink 1 Funding Rounds $3.5m Money raised SyncThink created the EYE-SYNC the first and only complete platform for assessment, recovery, and management of brain injuries. The unique wearable is transforming the way medical professionals assess for concussion and monitor ongoing brain performance. Industries: Virtual reality Augmented reality Healthcare Location: Holliston, Massachusetts Key people: Jamshid Ghajar ***@braintrauma.org Neuros Medical logo Neuros Medical 3 Funding Rounds $64.0m Money raised Neuromodulation Device Industries: Big data Neurotechnology Neurostimulation Location: Willoughby, Ohio Key people: Jon J. Snyder linkedin Kinova logo Kinova 1 Funding Rounds $25.0m Money raised Kinova develops assistive robotics solutions for healthcare, education, government, nuclear, advanced manufacturing and other applications. Industries: Technical support Robotics Information technology Location: Boisbriand, Quebec Canada Quebec Key people: Charles Deguire ********@kinovarobotics.com Louis-Joseph L’Écuyer *******@kinova.ca BrainCheck logo BrainCheck 6 Funding Rounds $30.9m Money raised A company offering neurocognitive assessments and cognitive care solutions. Industries: Athlete Hospital E-commerce Location: Houston Texas United States Key people: David Eagleman ********@neosensory.com Neurotrack logo Neurotrack 4 Funding Rounds $36.8m Money raised Neurotrack is a company offering a memory health tracking platform founded in 2012. Industries: Cognitive training Tracking Health Location: United States Redwood City, California Truust Neuroimaging logo Truust Neuroimaging 1 Funding Rounds $250.0k Money raised Truust Neuroimaging is a company developing high resolution neuro-imaging products founded in 2015 by Lars Bredvig. Industries: Neuroscience Big data Neurotechnology Location: San Francisco Key people: Lars Bredvig linkedin Henrik Kjeldsen linkedin BrainWaveBank logo BrainWaveBank 2 Funding Rounds $2.8m Money raised Platform to measure and track brain activity and cognitive performance for anyone, anytime, anywhere. Industries: Digital health Neuroscience Machine learning Location: Belfast Key people: Ronan Cunningham *****.**********@cumulusneuro.com Urs Streidl AstronauTx logo AstronauTx 6 Funding Rounds $195.8m Money raised AstronauTx is a London-based biotechnology research company developing treatments for neurogenerative diseases. Industries: Biomedical engineering Drug discovery Neurotechnology Location: Reading, Berkshire Brainlab logo Brainlab 1 Funding Rounds $7.3m Money raised Brainlab is a Munich-based company specializing in digital medical technology. Industries: Biomedical engineering Neurotechnology Health technology Location: Munich CoMind logo CoMind 1 Funding Rounds $60.0m Money raised Provider of noninvasive neural technological hardware and software. Industries: Neuroscience Artificial Intelligence (AI) Hardware Location: London Key people: James Dacombe *****@comind.io Myoscience logo Myoscience 3 Funding Rounds $97.0m Money raised A medical device company developing treatments for pains and aesthetics Industries: Neuroscience Biomedical engineering Technology Location: Redwood City, California San Francisco Virtuleap logo Virtuleap 1 Funding Rounds $250.0k Money raised Virtuleap is an improve Brain Health with VR founded in 2018 by Hossein Jalali, Amir Bozorgzadeh, Roland Dubois and Thomas Balouet. Industries: Neurotechnology Augmented reality Brain-computer interface Location: Lisbon Key people: Roland Dubois ******@virtuleap.com Amir Bozorgzadeh ****@virtuleap.com Hossein Jalali (entrepreneur) *******@virtuleap.com Ceryx Medical logo Ceryx Medical 3 Funding Rounds $19.9m Money raised Ceryx Medical is a developer of bioelectronic therapies for heart failure founded in 2016 by Julian Paton. Industries: Neuroscience Neurotechnology Biomarker Location: London Key people: Julian Paton linkedin Ottobock logo Ottobock 1 Funding Rounds Ottobock is a medical technology company developing and providing prosthetic and orthotic medical devices for people with disabilities to restore mobility. Industries: Biomedical engineering Neurotechnology Medical device Location: Duderstadt Germany Key people: Otto Bock Avalon AI logo Avalon AI 1 Funding Rounds Avalon AI is a London-based developer of a deep learning-based diagnostics tool for the detection of brain degenerative diseases. Industries: Neuroscience Neurodegenerative Disease Deep learning Location: United Kingdom London Key people: Alejandro (Sasha) Vicente Grabovetsky Olivier Van Den Biggelaar linkedin BrainQ logo BrainQ 2 Funding Rounds $48.8m Money raised BrainQ develops Artificial Intelligence-powered technologies to treat neuro-disorders in innovative ways. Industries: Artificial Intelligence (AI) Digital therapeutics Big data Location: Jerusalem Israel Key people: Prof. Esther Shohami Yaron Segal Yotam Drechsler *****@brainqtech.com Dreem logo Dreem 2 Funding Rounds $57.0m Money raised Dreem is a neurotechnology company composed of sleep pioneers, a team of experts fascinated by science, technology and design. Industries: Sleep Neuroscience Biomarker Location: Île-de-France Key people: Quentin Soulet de Brugiere Hugo Mercier ****@mercier.ooo CorTec logo CorTec 2 Funding Rounds $7.1m Money raised CorTec works on an investigational fully implantable system for long-term measurement of neuronal activity and electrical stimulation. Industries: Medical device Big data Neurotechnology Location: Freiburg im Breisgau Key people: Christina Schwartz Jorn Rickert linkedin Martin Schuttler PlatoScience logo PlatoScience 2 Funding Rounds $84.0k Money raised PlatoScience has developed PlatoWork. The plug 'n play tdcs headset for boosting cognition through neurostimulation. Industries: Big data Neurotechnology Neurostimulation Location: Copenhagen Denmark Key people: Balder Onarheim ******@platoscience.com BitBrain logo BitBrain 3 Funding Rounds $1.9m Money raised BitBrain Technologies is a company specialized in neuroscience and neurotechnology, working together with universities all over Europe. Industries: Big data Sleep Sleep aid Location: Barcelona Zaragoza Boston Key people: Javier Minguez Zafra Maria Lopez Valdes **********@bitbrain.com SPR Therapeutics logo SPR Therapeutics 3 Funding Rounds $30.3m Money raised SPR Therapeutics is a nerve Stimulation Therapy founded in 2010 by Maria E. Bennett. Industries: Neurostimulation Engineering Biomedical engineering Location: Cleveland Key people: Maria E. Bennett Geoffrey Thrope *******@sprtherapeutics.com MindAffect logo MindAffect 1 Funding Rounds $1.2m Money raised MindAffect provides brain response based hearing and vision diagnostic systems. Industries: Neurotechnology Neuroscience Artificial Intelligence (AI) Location: Arnhem Key people: Ivo de la Rive Box linkedin OpenBCI logo OpenBCI 2 Funding Rounds $4.0m Money raised OpenBCI is an open-source brain-computer interface platform founded in 2014 by Conor Russomanno. Industries: Electronics Open-source software Biosensor Location: Brooklyn Key people: Conor Russomanno *****@openbci.com Joel Murphy ****@openbci.com Advanced Brain Monitoring logo Advanced Brain Monitoring 1 Funding Rounds $836.8k Money raised A company developing and implementing mobile, user-friendly platforms for acquiring, integrating, analyzing and reporting multi-sensor data in real-world applications. Industries: Biosensor Big data Metamaterial Location: Carlsbad, California San Diego Key people: Dan Levendowski PainQx logo PainQx 2 Funding Rounds $4.1m Money raised PainQx is a New York City-based diagnostics and software company developing pain measurement systems. Industries: Software Neuroscience Diagnostic tools Location: New York City Kennett Square, Pennsylvania Key people: Alexander Ruckdaeschel Frank Minella ********@painqx.com Humm (wearable) logo Humm (wearable) 1 Funding Rounds $2.6m Money raised Humm is a wearable patch that improves working memory by gently stimulating the brain's attention and learning center. Industries: Biotechnology Neurotechnology Consumer biotechnology Location: Perth San Francisco Key people: Christopher Norman Iain McIntyre (entrepreneur) ****@humm.tech Ahmud Auleear Cumulus Neurosciences logo Cumulus Neurosciences 2 Funding Rounds $12.7m Money raised AI platform for integrated physiological and digital biomarkers. Industries: Neuroscience Neurotechnology Biomarker Location: Belfast Key people: Ruth McKernan ****.********@cumulusneuro.com Brian Murphy *****@cumulusneuro.com Wren Therapeutics logo Wren Therapeutics 2 Funding Rounds $40.4m Money raised Wren Therapeutics is a small Molecules Targeting Protein Mis-Folding founded in 2016 by Chris Dobson. Industries: Biotechnology Biomedical engineering Neuroscience Location: United Kingdom Cambridge, Massachusetts Cambridge, Cambridgeshire Key people: Samuel Cohen linkedin Chris Dobson Braingaze logo Braingaze 1 Funding Rounds $1.6m Money raised Braingaze is a Barcelona-based company founded in 2013 by Hans Supèr. Industries: Neuroscience Biotechnology Neurotechnology Location: Barcelona Key people: Laszlo Bax ******@braingaze.com Hans Supèr ****@braingaze.com MicroTransponder, Inc. logo MicroTransponder, Inc. 1 Funding Rounds $53.0m Money raised MicroTransponder, Inc. is an Austin, Texas-based company founded in 2007 by Jordan Curnes, Frank McEachern, William Rosellini and Navzer Engineer. Industries: Neurotechnology Health technology Neuroscience Location: Austin, Texas Key people: Navzer Engineer linkedin William Rosellini ****@cytoimmune.com Frank McEachern g.tec medical engineering logo g.tec medical engineering 1 Funding Rounds $2.2m Money raised g.tec develops and produces brain-computer interfaces and neurotechnologies for invasive and non-invasive recordings. Industries: Biosensor Medical device Diagnostic tools Location: Austria Key people: Christoph Guger *****@gtec.at Günter Edlinger ********@gtec.at QV Bioelectronics Ltd. logo QV Bioelectronics Ltd. 1 Funding Rounds $890.0k Money raised Longer, Better Quality Lives for Brain Tumour Patients Industries: Health technology Neuroscience Manufacturing Location: Manchester Key people: Richard Fu *******@qvbio.co.uk Chris Bullock ********@cleargov.com Nalu Medical logo Nalu Medical 2 Funding Rounds $104.0m Money raised Nalu Medical is a medical Devices. Industries: Biomedical engineering Neurotechnology Neurostimulation Location: Carlsbad, California San Diego Key people: Nick Pliam linkedin HypnoVR logo HypnoVR 2 Funding Rounds $10.2m Money raised Virtual reality software aiding anesthesia, pain relief, and anxiety treatment. Industries: Neurotechnology Neuroscience Brain-computer interface Location: Strasbourg Key people: Chloe Chauvin **@hypnovr.io Denis Graff **@hypnovr.io Nicolas Schaettel ****************@hypnovr.io Sign up to access our full database Enter your email and get access to 71,000 + technology companies you can partner with. Join 29000+ founders, operators, and investors. Seedtable logo Seedtable combines proprietary data with advanced AI technology to accelerate professional success across industries. © 2025 Seedtable™. All Rights Reserved. ------------- https://inss.ndu.edu/Media/News/Article/4371195/cognitive-warfare-2026-natos-chief-scientist-report-as-sentinel-call-for-operat/ PUBLICATIONS Through its publications, INSS aims to provide expert insights, cutting-edge research, and innovative solutions that contribute to shaping the national security discourse and preparing the next generation of leaders in the field. News | Jan. 6, 2026 Cognitive Warfare 2026: NATO’s Chief Scientist Report as Sentinel Call for Operational Readiness By Dr. James Girodano Strategic Insights The recently released NATO Chief Scientist’s 2025 Report on Cognitive Warfare provides a timely acknowledgment of a strategic reality that contemporary conflict is increasingly behavior-centric, and the decisive terrain is often not geographic but how individuals and groups perceive, interpret, decide, and act. I have had the privilege, honor and pleasure of working on NATO’s initial cognitive warfare studies beginning in 2018, which explicitly emphasized that cognitive warfare is not merely “PSYOPS with better tools.” Indeed, NATO efforts in this space echo our group’s ongoing work that has argued for a more expansive, yet nonetheless realistic view of cognitive warfare as a mix of emerging technologies, influence methods, and adversary exploitation of societal fault lines that can be engaged to shape the conditions under which humans form beliefs, allocate attention, and generate intent. The nature of warfare may remain the same, but operationally I posit that cognitive engagements change three fundamentals of military missions, namely: • The target set expands from discrete platforms or messages to human cognitive and social systems (trust networks, identity narratives, institutional legitimacy). • The battlespace becomes continuous, operating non-kinetically below thresholds of armed conflict, blending strategic competition, hybrid pressure, and wartime maneuvering. • The measure of effectiveness shifts from short-term message penetration to durable changes in cognitive patterns and behavioral dispositions (e.g., risk perception, threat appraisal, civic cohesion, and willingness to support military action). Increasingly, neurotechnology and artificial intelligence (AI) are becoming dual-use instruments for cognitive engagement to leverage biological, psychological, and social levels of effect, as follows: Biological Level: Manipulating Capacity This level directly targets the nervous system as the focal substrate of thought, emotion and behavior. Neuroscientific techniques and technologies (neuroS/T) can be used to assess and affect individual (and aggregate/group) physiological functions to alter (i.e., disrupt, direct, degrade or improve) cognitive capabilities, mental states, decision-making and actions. Psychological Level: Manipulating Interpretation Here, the focus is upon influencing cognitive appraisal(s), framing, emotions, and the patterns of thought that contribute to and shape individual and collective attitudes, beliefs and judgment. AI-enabled influence (for example, on social and public media) can tailor stimuli to engage individual and group vulnerabilities and volatilities (which may have been previously or co-modulated through the use of neuroS/T to affect susceptibility by altering arousal states or attentional gating). Social Level: Manipulating Cohesion This is the over-arching level for influencing shared narratives, beliefs, institutional legitimacy, and public views, values and activities. Cognitive engagement seeks to fracture cohesion, weaponize identity, and create epistemic chaos. In this light, NATO’s emphasis that the cognitive front is not only military but societal is both accurate and strategically important to recognize. In practice, these levels are not mutually exclusive, but rather can and should be regarded as complementary, reinforcing domains and dimensions of vulnerability, influence, and targetability; utilizing bottom-up (biological targeting to incur psychological and social effects), middle-out (i.e., psychological targeting to evoke both biological responses and social manifestations), and top-down (i.e., social level engagement(s) to induce both psycho-biologic and bio-psychological effects) approaches (as shown in the figure below). A figure illustration the utilization of bottom-up (biological targeting to incur psychological and social effects), middle-out (i.e., psychological targeting to evoke both biological responses and social manifestations), and top-down (i.e., social level engagement(s) to induce both psycho-biologic and bio-psychological effects) approaches NATO’s cognitive warfare ecosystem is explicit in its call for building practical capability and developing doctrine for operating within it to (1) acknowledge these bio-psychosocial levels and factors of effect, and (2) formulate paradigms for developing more accurate detection, fortified resilience, and directed deterrence and defense. This speaks to the need to appreciate cognitive warfare on a broader scale, and as executable in and across global theatres of operations. The military relevance of such cognitive engagement capabilities is twofold. Offensively, neurotechnologic and AI-enabled tools can be employed to influence adversary decision cycles through disruption of sensemaking, misdirection of confidence, and steered direction of group-level dynamics. Defensively, cognitive engagement can be leveraged to safeguard force readiness and fortify societal resilience against manipulations that seek to disrupt individual and/or collective capabilities through narrative exploitation, stress induction, attentional saturation, demoralization, and/or engineered distrust. Convergence: AI as Accelerant of Cognitive Engagement Cognitive warfare extends into the social substrates of trust, shared epistemic standards, and institutional legitimacy. From a force-development standpoint, AI becomes both threat and countermeasure: the same methods that enable adversary influence can (under current rule-of-law constraints) be employed to support defensive cognitive security (e.g., anomaly detection in influence networks; pattern recognition for coordinated inauthentic behavior; and decision-support for commanders managing narrative risk). Thus, if neuroscience and technologies are the means of “influencing the mind by affecting the brain,” AI is increasingly becoming the means by which to "affect the mind by manipulating the information ecology." Hence, the operational concern is not simply that AI can generate persuasive content, but rather, that AI can be used to: • Micro-segment populations to enable psychographic and behavioral targeting • Optimize narratives in real time and across channels • Automate social amplification (e.g., using bot/hybrid actor swarms) • Create synthetic credibility (e.g., deepfakes, synthetic experts, forged “evidence”) • Exploit cognitive biases, values and vulnerabilities (e.g., salience, fear conditioning, in-group/out-group polarization). …and do so with speed and target-specification on a variety of scales. Thus, the NATO report should be used as a sentinel call to look beyond the European theatre, identify which actors on the global stage possess these capabilities, examine their current programs, projects and potential applications, and acknowledge the clear and present realties of their using extant and emerging S/T in cognitive warfare engagements. Recommendations Given these realities, if NATO’s 2025 Chief Scientist agenda is to be more than an important conceptual marker for the field, I believe it should drive military capability projects that align with how cognitive effects are generated and can be defended against in the current milieu of global power competition. Toward such ends I propose the following recommendations: 1. Develop cognitive indicators and warnings as a standing function, to include enduring fusion cells that integrate neurocognitive and behavioral science, data and cyberscience and technology, and operational intelligence. 2. Instantiate neuro-AI readiness and resilience programs for the force, which entail training, assessment, and protective measures that regard cognition as a mission-critical substrate, and not merely a "soft" add-on. 3. Establish doctrine for cognitive engagement in military domains of operation. Cognitive effects should be integrated into planning alongside cyber, electronic warfare. space, and information activities, given that cognitive outcomes frequently determine whether kinetic engagement becomes tactically effective and strategically successful. 4. Expand ethical-legal frameworks for governance of dual-use neuroS/T and AI. Military forces must operationalize “responsible use” approaches, particularly given that cognitive engagement tools blur traditional lines between persuasion, manipulation, and coercion. This is where prior NATO work on mitigating and responding to cognitive warfare remains relevant; defense surely demands the use of cutting edged science and technology, but equally necessitates guardrails for guidance, governance and response. Conclusion: Cognitive Superiority is Not Optional The NATO report rightly recognizes that the international contest for power advantage is increasingly being engaged through human cognition, collective sensemaking, and societal effect. The convergence of neuroS/T and AI will intensify this reality by enabling precision influence at scale through biological, psychological and socially mediated modulation of human cognition, emotion, behavior and vulnerability. Therefore, I opine that the critical point to be taken from the NATO Chief Scientist’s Report on Cognitive Warfare is that the task at hand is to ensure that initiatives in cognitive engagement become operational capabilities; with measurable indicators, trained forces, partnered resilience, and governance of dual-use S/T in an era where the “battle for the brain” is no longer a metaphor, but becomes a factor in defense planning on the world stage. Citations Giordano J, Forsythe C, Olds J. Neuroscience, neurotechnology and national security: The need for preparedness and an ethics of responsible action. AJOB-Neurosci 1(2): 1-3 (2010). Giordano J, Wurzman R. Neurotechnology as weapons in national intelligence and defense. Synesis: A Journal of Science, Technology, Ethics and Policy 2: 138-151 (2011). Giordano J. The neuroweapons threat. Bull Atomic Sci 72(3): 1-4 (2016). DeFranco JP, DiEuliis D, Giordano J. Redefining neuroweapons: Emerging capabilities in neuroscience and neurotechnology. PRISM 8(3): 48-63 (2019). Giordano J. Chem-bio, data and cyberscience and technology in deterrence operations. HDIAC J 8(1): 26-35 (2024). Disclaimer The views and opinions expressed in this essay are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States government, Department of War or the National Defense University. Dr. James Giordano Dr. James Giordano is Director of the Center for Disruptive Technology and Future Warfare of the Institute for National Strategic Studies at the National Defense University. -------------- https://inss.ndu.edu/Research-and-Commentary/View-Publications/Article/4371195/cognitive-warfare-2026-natos-chief-scientist-report-as-sentinel-call-for-operat/ RESEARCH AND COMMENTARY Through its publications INSS provides cutting-edge research, analyses, and innovative solutions on critical national security issues in support of the joint warfighter and Department of War stakeholders. HomeResearch and CommentaryView Publications News | Jan. 6, 2026 Cognitive Warfare 2026: NATO’s Chief Scientist Report as Sentinel Call for Operational Readiness By Dr. James Girodano Strategic Insights The recently released NATO Chief Scientist’s 2025 Report on Cognitive Warfare provides a timely acknowledgment of a strategic reality that contemporary conflict is increasingly behavior-centric, and the decisive terrain is often not geographic but how individuals and groups perceive, interpret, decide, and act. I have had the privilege, honor and pleasure of working on NATO’s initial cognitive warfare studies beginning in 2018, which explicitly emphasized that cognitive warfare is not merely “PSYOPS with better tools.” Indeed, NATO efforts in this space echo our group’s ongoing work that has argued for a more expansive, yet nonetheless realistic view of cognitive warfare as a mix of emerging technologies, influence methods, and adversary exploitation of societal fault lines that can be engaged to shape the conditions under which humans form beliefs, allocate attention, and generate intent. The nature of warfare may remain the same, but operationally I posit that cognitive engagements change three fundamentals of military operations, namely: • The target set expands from discrete platforms or messages to human cognitive and social systems (trust networks, identity narratives, institutional legitimacy). • The battlespace becomes continuous, operating non-kinetically below thresholds of armed conflict, blending strategic competition, hybrid pressure, and wartime maneuvering. • The measure of effectiveness shifts from short-term message penetration to durable changes in cognitive patterns and behavioral dispositions (e.g., risk perception, threat appraisal, civic cohesion, and willingness to support military action). • Increasingly, neurotechnology and artificial intelligence (AI) are becoming dual-use instruments for cognitive engagement to leverage biological, psychological, and social levels of effect, as follows: Biological Level: Manipulating Capacity This level directly targets the nervous system as the focal substrate of thought, emotion and behavior. Neuroscientific techniques and technologies (neuroS/T) can be used to assess and affect individual (and aggregate/group) physiological functions to alter (i.e., disrupt, direct, degrade or improve) cognitive capabilities, mental states, decision-making and actions. Psychological Level: Manipulating Interpretation Here, the focus is upon influencing cognitive appraisal(s), framing, emotions, and the patterns of thought that contribute to and shape individual and collective attitudes, beliefs and judgment. AI-enabled influence (for example, on social and public media) can tailor stimuli to engage individual and group vulnerabilities and volatilities (which may have been previously or co-modulated through the use of neuroS/T to affect susceptibility by altering arousal states or attentional gating). Social Level: Manipulating Cohesion This is the over-arching level for influencing shared narratives, beliefs, institutional legitimacy, and public views, values and activities. Cognitive engagement seeks to fracture cohesion, weaponize identity, and create epistemic chaos. In this light, NATO’s emphasis that the cognitive front is not only military but societal is both accurate and strategically important to recognize. In practice, these levels are not mutually exclusive, but rather can and should be regarded as complementary, reinforcing domains and dimensions of vulnerability, influence, and targetability; utilizing bottom-up (biological targeting to incur psychological and social effects), middle-out (i.e., psychological targeting to evoke both biological responses and social manifestations), and top-down (i.e., social level engagement(s) to induce both psycho-biologic and bio-psychological effects) approaches (as shown in the figure below). A figure illustration the utilization of bottom-up (biological targeting to incur psychological and social effects), middle-out (i.e., psychological targeting to evoke both biological responses and social manifestations), and top-down (i.e., social level engagement(s) to induce both psycho-biologic and bio-psychological effects) approaches NATO’s cognitive warfare ecosystem is explicit in its call for building practical capability and developing doctrine for operating within it to (1) acknowledge these bio-psychosocial levels and factors of effect, and (2) formulate paradigms for developing more accurate detection, fortified resilience, and directed deterrence and defense. This speaks to the need to appreciate cognitive warfare on a broader scale, and as executable in and across global theatres of operations. The military relevance of such cognitive engagement capabilities is twofold. Offensively, neurotechnologic and AI-enabled tools can be employed to influence adversary decision cycles through disruption of sensemaking, misdirection of confidence, and steered direction of group-level dynamics. Defensively, cognitive engagement can be leveraged to safeguard force readiness and fortify societal resilience against manipulations that seek to disrupt individual and/or collective capabilities through narrative exploitation, stress induction, attentional saturation, demoralization, and/or engineered distrust. Convergence: AI as Accelerant of Cognitive Engagement Cognitive warfare extends into the social substrates of trust, shared epistemic standards, and institutional legitimacy. From a force-development standpoint, AI becomes both threat and countermeasure: the same methods that enable adversary influence can (under current rule-of-law constraints) be employed to support defensive cognitive security (e.g., anomaly detection in influence networks; pattern recognition for coordinated inauthentic behavior; and decision-support for commanders managing narrative risk). Thus, if neuroscience and technologies are the means of “influencing the mind by affecting the brain,” AI is increasingly becoming the means by which to "affect the mind by manipulating the information ecology." Hence, the operational concern is not simply that AI can generate persuasive content, but rather, that AI can be used to: • Micro-segment populations to enable psychographic and behavioral targeting • Optimize narratives in real time and across channels • Automate social amplification (e.g., using bot/hybrid actor swarms) • Create synthetic credibility (e.g., deepfakes, synthetic experts, forged “evidence”) • Exploit cognitive biases, values and vulnerabilities (e.g., salience, fear conditioning, in-group/out-group polarization). …and do so with speed and target-specification on a variety of scales. Thus, the NATO report should be used as a sentinel call to look beyond the European theatre, identify which actors on the global stage possess these capabilities, examine their current programs, projects and potential applications, and acknowledge the clear and present realties of their using extant and emerging S/T in cognitive warfare engagements. Recommendations Given these realities, if NATO’s 2025 Chief Scientist agenda is to be more than an important conceptual marker for the field, I believe it should drive military capability projects that align with how cognitive effects are generated and can be defended against in the current milieu of global power competition. Toward such ends I propose the following recommendations: 1. Develop cognitive indicators and warnings as a standing function, to include enduring fusion cells that integrate neurocognitive and behavioral science, data and cyberscience and technology, and operational intelligence. 2. Instantiate neuro-AI readiness and resilience programs for the force, which entail training, assessment, and protective measures that regard cognition as a mission-critical substrate, and not merely a "soft" add-on. 3. Establish doctrine for cognitive engagement in military domains of operation. Cognitive effects should be integrated into planning alongside cyber, electronic warfare. space, and information activities, given that cognitive outcomes frequently determine whether kinetic engagement becomes tactically effective and strategically successful. 4. Expand ethical-legal frameworks for governance of dual-use neuroS/T and AI. Military forces must operationalize “responsible use” approaches, particularly given that cognitive engagement tools blur traditional lines between persuasion, manipulation, and coercion. This is where prior NATO work on mitigating and responding to cognitive warfare remains relevant; defense surely demands the use of cutting edged science and technology, but equally necessitates guardrails for guidance, governance and response. Conclusion: Cognitive Superiority is Not Optional The NATO report rightly recognizes that the international contest for power advantage is increasingly being engaged through human cognition, collective sensemaking, and societal effect. The convergence of neuroS/T and AI will intensify this reality by enabling precision influence at scale through biological, psychological and socially mediated modulation of human cognition, emotion, behavior and vulnerability. Therefore, I opine that the critical point to be taken from the NATO Chief Scientist’s Report on Cognitive Warfare is that the task at hand is to ensure that initiatives in cognitive engagement become operational capabilities; with measurable indicators, trained forces, partnered resilience, and governance of dual-use S/T in an era where the “battle for the brain” is no longer a metaphor, but becomes a factor in defense planning on the world stage. Citations Giordano J, Forsythe C, Olds J. Neuroscience, neurotechnology and national security: The need for preparedness and an ethics of responsible action. AJOB-Neurosci 1(2): 1-3 (2010). Giordano J, Wurzman R. Neurotechnology as weapons in national intelligence and defense. Synesis: A Journal of Science, Technology, Ethics and Policy 2: 138-151 (2011). Giordano J. The neuroweapons threat. Bull Atomic Sci 72(3): 1-4 (2016). DeFranco JP, DiEuliis D, Giordano J. Redefining neuroweapons: Emerging capabilities in neuroscience and neurotechnology. PRISM 8(3): 48-63 (2019). Giordano J. Chem-bio, data and cyberscience and technology in deterrence operations. HDIAC J 8(1): 26-35 (2024). Disclaimer The views and opinions expressed in this essay are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States government, Department of War or the National Defense University. Dr. James Giordano Dr. James Giordano is Director of the Center for Disruptive Technology and Future Warfare of the Institute for National Strategic Studies at the National Defense University. --------- https://anr.fr/Project-ANR-22-ASGC-0001 Cognitive Warfare Design Lab – GECKO Submission summary The concept of cognitive warfare stems from the convergence of work on the characteristics, limits and fragilities of individuals, on the one hand, and on social and cultural influences and their manipulation for war purposes, on the other. It is anchored both in a historical reflection on the evolution of the doctrines of disinformation and manipulation stemming from the Cold War and those born from the last two decades of counter-insurgency and hybrid confrontations, as well as in the work on the militarisation of neurosciences. Cognitive warfare, as currently conceived, is based on a number of assumptions related to the cognitive science approach to human cognition. Most research looks at cognition on an individual basis, studying how the subject processes information, listing the cognitive biases involved in errors of judgement in intelligence activities. Even when research looks at collective analysis and decision making, it does so within a narrow framework without taking into account social, cultural and organisational factors. Although cognitive sciences have extended individual cognition to the non-human with the concept of HAT (human-autonomy teaming), they still lack the integration of contextual factors, which the collaboration between the skills of the ENSC (IMS), Inalco (ERTIM and PLIDAM) and the IRSEM aims to explore. Thus, the GECKO project offers a new perspective by exploring cognitive warfare through the prism of collective action and inter-individual collaboration, by considering it as a socio-technical organisation and cognition as an individual but also cultural process that is very largely determined today by information and mass communication technologies. The project proposes the constitution of a tool for exploring cognitive warfare in fictitious crisis situations, involving decision-making or operational actors, both civilian and military, and aimed at operations related to national security. Taking as a hypothesis the creation of a new field of operation centred on the human being, it will be a question of creating a device allowing experts to be placed in a controlled scenario, implementing a tool for detection and situational awareness. It will be intended for awareness-raising, training and practice, allowing both the study for the characterisation, treatment and preparation of different compliant and non-compliant cases. It will also be a place for civilian and military researchers, including engineers in training and doctoral students, working on the subject of cognitive warfare. Project coordination Mathieu Valette (EQUIPE DE RECHERCHE : TEXTES, INFORMATIQUE, MULTILINGUISME) The author of this summary is the project coordinator, who is responsible for the content of this summary. The ANR declines any responsibility as for its contents. Partnership IRSEM Institut de Recherche Stratégique de l'Ecole Militaire ERTIM EQUIPE DE RECHERCHE : TEXTES, INFORMATIQUE, MULTILINGUISME PLIDAM Pluralité des Langues et des Identités : Didactique – Acquisition – Médiations IMS LABORATOIRE D'INTEGRATION DU MATERIAU AU SYSTEME Help of the ANR 299,419 euros Beginning and duration of the scientific project: December 2022 - 36 Months Useful links List of selected projects Permanent link to this summary on the ANR website (ANR-22-ASGC-0001) See the publications in the HAL-ANR portal ------------- https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3754967 The International Conference 'Education and Creativity for a Knowledge-Based Society' - Psychology - XIVth Edition The International Conference 'Education and Creativity for a Knowledge-Based Society', ISBN: 978-3-9503145-6-4 199 Pages Posted: 8 Mar 2021 Viorel Iulian Tanase Titu Maiorescu University Iulian Ipate Titu Maiorescu University Ciobanu Alexandra Titu Maiorescu University, Students Titi Paraschiv Titu Maiorescu University; Military Technical Academy; Osterreichish-Rumanischer Akademischer Verein Oana Mateescu Titu Maiorescu University - Faculty of Psychology Petru Craiovan Titu Maiorescu University of Bucharest Dan Postolea Titu Maiorescu University Barbara Craciun Titu Maiorescu University Elena Anghel Stanila Titu Maiorescu University Odette Dimitriu Titu Maiorescu University Brindusa Orasanu Titu Maiorescu University Craciun Eftihita Titu Maiorescu University Camelia Petrescu Titu Maiorescu University Cristian Manea Titu Maiorescu University, Students Manea Mirela Universitatea de Medicina si Farmacie Bucuresti Crina Elena Asandei Titu Maiorescu University, Students manea Traian Titu Maiorescu University Paraschiv Ruxandra Victoria Titu Maiorescu University Alina Zaharia Titu Maiorescu University Adela Marinescu Titu Maiorescu University Alexandru Constantin Polytechnic University of Bucharest Octavian Constantin Grigoroiu Military Technical Academy Ţiganescu Viorel Military Technical Academy Costin Ana-Maria Military Technical Academy Dariela Nicolae Titu Maiorescu University, Students Irina Dinescu Titu Maiorescu University, Students Alexandra-Cristina Ichim Titu Maiorescu University, Students Mihaela-Georgeta Marghita Titu Maiorescu University, Students Georgiana Moisa Titu Maiorescu University, Students Corina-Mihaela Tudose Titu Maiorescu University, Students Vasile Dem. Zamfirescu Titu Maiorescu University Simona Reghintovschi Titu Maiorescu University Anamaria Negulescu Titu Maiorescu University, Students Andreea Văduva Titu Maiorescu University, Students Mădălina Giurgescu (Manea) University of Pitesti Ion Chițescu Universitatea Politehnica Bucuresti Alexandru Dinu Universitatea Politehnica Bucuresti Ioana Maria Ruscău Titu Maiorescu University, Students Malvina Roșu Preda Titu Maiorescu University, Students Mirela Turcea Titu Maiorescu University, Students Roxana Vlad Titu Maiorescu University, Students Mihaela Ciurciun Titu Maiorescu University, Students Vasile Daniel Avram Military Technical Academy, Students Ionuț Cătălin Predescu Military Technical Academy, Students Mihail Munteanu Military Technical Academy, Students Alexandru Marin Military Technical Academy, Students Ovidiu Iorga Military Technical Academy, Students Andrei Șchiopu Military Technical Academy, Students Date Written: December 4, 2020 Abstract A collection of multiple articles on psychologys, all of which have been selected for the 2020 edition of The International Conference 'Education and Creativity for a Knowledge-Based Society' - Psychology. Suggested Citation: Tanase, Viorel Iulian and Ipate, Iulian and Alexandra, Ciobanu and Paraschiv, Titi and Paraschiv, Titi and Mateescu, Oana and Craiovan, Petru and Postolea, Dan and Craciun, Barbara and Anghel Stanila, Elena and Dimitriu, Odette and Orasanu, Brindusa and Eftihita, Craciun and Petrescu, Camelia and Manea, Cristian and Mirela, Manea and Asandei, Crina Elena and Traian, manea and Ruxandra Victoria, Paraschiv and Zaharia, Alina and Marinescu, Adela and Constantin, Alexandru and Grigoroiu, Octavian Constantin and Viorel, Ţiganescu and Ana-Maria, Costin and Nicolae, Dariela and Dinescu, Irina and Ichim, Alexandra-Cristina and Marghita, Mihaela-Georgeta and Moisa, Georgiana and Tudose, Corina-Mihaela and Zamfirescu, Vasile Dem. and Reghintovschi, Simona and Negulescu, Anamaria and Văduva, Andreea and Giurgescu (Manea), Mădălina and Chițescu, Ion and Dinu, Alexandru and Ruscău, Ioana Maria and Roșu Preda, Malvina and Turcea, Mirela and Vlad, Roxana and Ciurciun, Mihaela and Avram, Vasile Daniel and Predescu, Ionuț Cătălin and Munteanu, Mihail and Marin, Alexandru and Iorga, Ovidiu and Șchiopu, Andrei, The International Conference 'Education and Creativity for a Knowledge-Based Society' - Psychology - XIVth Edition (December 4, 2020). The International Conference 'Education and Creativity for a Knowledge-Based Society', ISBN: 978-3-9503145-6-4, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3754967 ------------ We addressed how technology has affected the lives of people of four generations; Technology developments have provided faster ways to communicate through instant messaging applications and social media platforms. Older people are able to use new technologies; Because there are so many new technologies, adaptation can seem overwhelming. However, most people, regardless of age, are aware that all these new technologies are designed to make life more beautiful, Telepsychotherapy is the best known form, but this field is vast and also includes access to medical information, coordination of care pathways, prevention and follow-up applications, self-care or online mutual help. In short, everything that can be done with digital technologies to provide mental health care and information can be related to e-mental health; The crisis caused by Coronavirus has forced almost four billion people not to leave their homes, voluntarily or compulsorily; thus people are more prone to stress, anxiety, fear, sadness, frustration, irritability and anger. New technologies have an important role to play in the current situation, helping us to cross this period with dignity; People are aware of the importance of technology in everyday life using technology for almost all important areas - from shopping using online applications, to interacting with others at the same time, online learning platforms - digital school - and many other applications; Instead of feeling overwhelmed, people should embrace technology to discover how they can improve their lives and how they can become an essential part of their daily lives. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3754967 11 REFERENCES 1. Andersson, G., & Titov, N. (2014). Advantages and Limitations of Internet-based Interventions for Common Mental Disorders. World Psychiatric Association; 2. Baumeister, H., Nowoczin, L., Lin, J., Seifferth, H., Seufert, J., Laubner, K., & Ebert, D. (2014). Impact of an acceptance facilitating intervention on diabetes patients' acceptance of Internet-based interventions for depression: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract., 30-39; 3. Blackwell, S. (2015). Positive Imagery-Based Cognitive Bias Modification as a Web-Based Treatment Tool for Depressed Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Clinical Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science , 91- 111; 4. Christensen, H., Cuijpers, P., & Reynolds, C. (2016). Changing the Direction of Suicide Prevention Research: A Necessity for True Population Impact. JAMA Psychiatry; 5. Cummings, J., & Bailenson, J. (2016). How immersive is enough? A meta-analysis of the effect of immersive technology on user presence. Media Psychology, 272-309 6. Hensler, C. (2013). Generation X Goes Global: Mapping a Youth Culture in Motion (Routledge Research in Cultural and Media Studies) 1st Edition. Routledge; 7. Huang, S., & Bailenson, J. (2019). Close Relationships and Virtual Reality. Brain adn Technology, 49-65 8. Lin, C., Lee, C., Lally, D., & Coughlin, J. (2018). Impact of Virtual Reality (VR) Experience; 9. Riek, L. D. (2016). Robotics technology in mental health care. Artificial Intelligence in Behavioral and mental health care; 10. Saeb, S. (2016). The relationship between mobile phone location sensor data 11. Valmaggia, L., Latif, L., Kempton, M., & Rus-Calafell, M. (2016). Virtual Reality in the Psychological Treatment for Mental Health Problems: An Systematic Review of Recent Evidence. Psychiatry research, 189- 195 Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3754967 12 CONTRIBUTIONS ON THE IMPACT OF NEUROMARKETING TECHNIQUES ON BUYERS Paraschiv Titi, “Titu Maiorescu” University, Faculty of Psychology, Bucharest Mateescu Oana, “Titu Maiorescu” University, Faculty of Psychology, Bucharest Asandei Crina Elena, “Titu Maiorescu” University, Faculty of Psychology, Bucharest ABSTRACT: In the study we determined the sensory impact that neuromarketing techniques have on buyers, in terms of familiarity with the brand. We examined the differences between the reactions and mental and physiological perceptions of consumers, in relation to the preferred brand, then identified the degree of emotional conditioning towards it, at the level of the five senses. The results of the study signal the power that a brand, well positioned in the market, exerts on consumers. The fundamental hypothesis of neuromarketing is that all thoughts, emotions, actions, consciousness and consciousness are the products of the neural activity of the brain. Keywords: neuromarketing, brand, neuroscience, cognitive processes, consumer, biometrics, sensory stimuli INTRODUCTION The techniques and tools used in neuromarketing allow the study of emotional conditioning towards brands. Consumers often have to choose between products that have similar, if not identical, functionalities, which causes them to stop buying them for their functionality and use value, but according to the experience promised by the strategies. marketing and advertising. In this way, in order to become memorable and condition customers emotionally and cognitively in relation to their products, the brands on the market integrate in promotion affective, sensory, functional, symbolic and experiential attributes. For this reason, the ethics of using neuromarketing methods to subliminally influence consumer experience can be questioned. Each time a person focuses on a concept or idea for more than 50 minutes, the number of connections in the brain is doubled, thus producing physical reactions as a result of interaction with the external environment. All this information is stored in the neocortex and is related to the conscious mind, while generating a feeling or emotion. The process actually causes the body to feel what the mind has already understood. In this way, the limbic part of the brain conditions the body to be chemically trained to follow the mind in the process of understanding. This reptilian brain turns an experience into an emotional signature, influencing or even determining the decision-making process. As a result of studies in the field of neuromarketing, scientists have found that understanding the patterns and reactions in the subconscious mind of the customer, provides the key to how purchasing decisions are made. The study of the mechanisms of influencing the buyer determined a fusion between marketing, behavioral economics, neuroscience, social psychology and medical technologies, learning mechanisms, thus resulting in neuromarketing. The development of brain imaging technologies and their application beyond the medical sphere, has made possible new perspectives for researching consumer behavior. After the emergence of cognitive and social neurosciences, neuroeconomics was configured to analyze the decision-making process by studying cognitive patterns, neural patterns. (Egidi, G., 2008, pp. 73-76). Given these, new research indicates that the decision-making process does not occur at the conscious level, and the theory that consumers make decisions that maximize their own interests, based on reason, can no longer be supported. In this context, the emergence of neuromarketing occurs as a complement to the discoveries of neuroeconomics, in order to use neuroimaging investigation techniques for market research. Neuromarketing is the application of information and techniques from psychology and neuroscience in the field of marketing in order to research and examine brain activity in response to consumer behavior and decisions. Typical neuromarketing research activities include the direct use of brain imaging, scanning, or other brain activity measurement technologies to observe the consumer's response to certain elements of the product, such as packaging, brand, message, or advertising. The main objective of neuromarketing is to capitalize on the cognitive prejudices of a target audience to convince them to buy, potential buyers being triggered by consumer behavior by using a set of techniques in the field of psychology. ---------- https://sam.gov/opp/d005c5b47a5849d0a130a44e19f0bb86/view Reengineering Enabling Sleep Transitions in Operationally Restrictive Environments (RESTORE) Inactive Contract Opportunity Notice ID HR001125S0012 Related Notice Department/Ind. Agency DEPT OF DEFENSE Sub-tier DEFENSE ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY (DARPA) Office DEF ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGCY Classification Original Set Aside: Product Service Code: AC11 - NATIONAL DEFENSE R&D SERVICES; DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE - MILITARY; BASIC RESEARCH NAICS Code: 541715 - Research and Development in the Physical, Engineering, and Life Sciences (except Nanotechnology and Biotechnology) Place of Performance: Description The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is soliciting innovative proposals that leverage emerging neuromodulation technologies to enhance sleep efficiency and performance under sleep-restricted conditions. The Reengineering Enabling Sleep Transitions in Operationally Restrictive Environments (RESTORE) program aims to develop multimodal, multitarget, noninvasive neuromodulation methods to repair disrupted sleep architectures caused by sleep restriction, with the ultimate goal of improving cognitive performance. Proposed research should investigate innovative approaches that enable revolutionary advances in the mechanisms of sleep related to performance psychology. Specifically excluded is research that primarily results in evolutionary improvements to the existing state of practice. -------- https://www.researchgate.net/publication/398981151_Targeted_dream_incubation_at_a_distance_the_development_of_a_remote_and_sensor-free_tool_for_incubating_hypnagogic_dreams_and_mind-wandering Targeted dream incubation at a distance: the development of a remote and sensor-free tool for incubating hypnagogic dreams and mind-wandering May 2024Frontiers in Sleep 3:1258345 DOI:10.3389/frsle.2024.1258345 Authors: Lucas Bellaiche Adam Haar Horowitz Mason McClay Ryan Bottary Dan Denis Christina Chen Pattie Maes Paul Seli --------------- https://watermark02.silverchair.com/zpaf013.pdf Original Article Targeted dream incubation and dream self-efficacy Westley A. Youngren1,*,†, , Adam Haar Horowitz2,3,†, Victoria West Staples1, Michelle Carr4, Robert Stickgold3,5 and Pattie Maes2 1Department of Psychology and Counseling, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO, USA, 2MIT Media Lab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA, 3Center for Sleep and Cognition, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA, 4Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada and 5Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA *Corresponding author. Westley A. Youngren, Department of Psychology and Counseling, University of Missouri, Kansas City, 1512 East 15th Street, Lawrence KS 66044, USA. Email: YoungrenWA@gmail.com. †These authors equally contributed to the work. This article is part of the Festschrift in honor of Dr. Robert Stickgold Collection. Abstract This preliminary study investigates the potential for a technique that enables purposeful guiding of dream content (Targeted Dream Incubation; TDI) to change the degree to which an individual feels in control of their dreams (Dream Self-Efficacy; DSE). DSE is a sub- set of a larger concept of self-efficacy relating to one’s belief in their own abilities and competencies. Examining DSE may be quite important, as past research has demonstrated that DSE may be linked to positive treatment outcomes in specific therapies, such as interventions for trauma-related nightmares. Furthermore, prior research has found that decreasing feelings of helplessness related to sleep has been shown to improve insomnia symptoms and daytime fatigue. Thus, our study sought to examine the relationship between TDI and DSE. We enrolled N = 25 participants in a TDI protocol conducted during a predominantly N1 sleep nap, where participants completed surveys before and after a TDI paradigm. Our results revealed that TDI was linked to DSE, with individuals reporting significantly higher levels of DSE after the TDI protocol. These results provide preliminary evidence for a technique (TDI) that could increase DSE with the overall aim of improving the efficacy of specific sleep-related interventions, such as treatments for trauma-related nightmares. Future research should aim to further confirm these results with a control condition and examine the effects of TDI within the context of behavioral sleep interventions. Key words: dreaming; targeted dream incubation; self-efficacy Statement of Significance This manuscript provides the first evidence that a novel sleep paradigm (Targeted Dream Incubation; TDI) may lead to increases in Dream Self-Efficacy (DSE), even within a sample that experiences frequent nightmares. These preliminary results are signifi- cant because past research has demonstrated that perceptions of self-efficacy directly impact treatment success and adherence, especially in interventions that target sleep-related disorders, such as Cognitive behavioral Therapy for Insomnia. Additionally, the results of this paper provide further meaning, as they provide rationale for future studies to further explore the relationship between the TDI protocol and DSE. In sum, the results of this manuscript provide novel findings that may be able to impact sleep-related treatments. Trauma-related nightmares (TRNs) are one of the most distress- ing and treatment-resistant features of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with intensely negative dream content caus- ing debilitating daytime stress [1]. Furthermore, TRNs are quite problematic clinically, having been linked to substance abuse, depression, suicide, and many other negative outcomes [1, 2]. The leading TRNs treatments are rescripting-based therapies, such as Imagery Rehearsal Therapy (IRT) and Exposure, Relaxation, and Rescripting Therapy (ERRT). Rescripting therapies focus primarily on behavioral sleep practices (such as sleep hygiene and stimulus control) and nightmare rescription (the process of rewriting a nightmare into a changed version of the dream and then reading/rehearsing this new version throughout the day and prior to falling asleep --------- herapies such as IRT [6]. With evidence of varying levels of effec- tiveness, research is needed in order to improve the efficacy of rescripting-oriented therapies, with the overall goal of reducing the effects of TRNs. Dream self-efficacy One particular mechanism that could impact response to rescripting-based therapies is patient confidence in their ability to have control and mastery over their dream content, also referred to as dream self-efficacy (DSE). DSE was first demonstrated by Miller et al., who reported that after a successful completion of a rescripting therapy, individuals’ internal self-efficacy (belief that one has control over what happens) centered around their dreams significantly increased [7]. This aligns with results from Rousseau et al. who demonstrated a significant relationship between night- mare reductions following IRT and an increase in perceived mas- tery over their dreams [6]. According to Rousseau, “The most frequently cited mechanism of action for IRT’s effectiveness was an increased sense of mastery. Sense of mastery is defined as the conviction patients have that they can control their dreams and nightmares; this feeling would be gained through concrete experiences of control” [6]. Additionally, Rousseau reported that dropout from IRT was often related to the client’s belief that they could not actually control or rescript elements of a dream. In addition to the link between rescripting therapies and DSE, prior research has reported that insomnia severity, dysfunctional beliefs about sleep, and depressive symptoms are all negatively correlated with one’s belief in their mastery of sleep [8]. There is also evidence that self-efficacy centered around sleep is neg- atively correlated with anxiety symptoms and positively corre- lated with subjective sleep quality [9]. Furthermore, it has been reported that perceived lack of control over nocturnal thoughts and lack of control over sleep are related to higher insomnia symptoms [10]. Aligned with this idea, alteration of small details in an otherwise traumatic dream, giving participants a sense of control over the dream state, has been shown to alleviate repeti- tive nightmares in a small case study [11]. Lastly, in veteran pop- ulations, reducing feelings of helplessness related to sleep has been shown to improve insomnia symptoms and daytime fatigue [12]. This background research provides ample evidence support- ing the idea that improving a subject’s sense of control and mas- tery over their sleep and dreaming could impact the effectiveness of rescripting-based therapies. Targeted dream incubation and DSE Importantly, it should be noted that situation-specific self-efficacy (e.g. mastery over work, control over health) is not considered trait-like and stable but instead can change with new experi- ences [13]. When considering ways to change DSE, one potential method could be targeted dream incubation (TDI). TDI is a tech- nique that induces dreams during sleep onset that incorporate targeted information, repeatedly presenting audio cues contain- ing the targeted information, which is then incubated during the sleep onset hypnagogic period and incorporated into dreams. TDI research has demonstrated that a high percentage of subjects (up to 92 per cent) report dreaming of the cued subject while under- going the incubation protocol [13, 14]. Considering these results, it is possible that TDI could be a technique used to increase DSE via concrete experiences of dream control. With the aforementioned in mind, our key aim was to pro- vide preliminary evidence on the relationship between TDI and DSE, with the ultimate goal as serving as pilot data for future more in-depth explorations between said variables. Specifically, we investigate whether firsthand experience of TDI is related to higher ratings on scales of DSE. If TDI is in fact successful at mod- ulating DSE, it could be used to modulate sleep-related beliefs before rescripting-oriented treatment begins and hopefully improve clinical outcomes. Materials and methods Participants We enrolled N = 28 participants (M age = 31.55, SD = 16.37) to participate in a daytime napping study. Gender composition of our sample was nearly equally split (female, n = 13; 52 per cent & male, n = 12; 48 per cent). Nearly half of our sample (n = 11; 44 per cent) reported frequent nightmares (ranging from 1 to 7 nightmares per week). Protocol Potential participants were recruited via virtual and hard- copy advertisements. Before participating, all candidates were screened for inclusion and exclusion criteria (inclusion: being 18 years old or older; exclusion: not experiencing a current psychotic episode and not currently taking any sleep medications). Once screened, participants arrived at the laboratory in the afternoon between the hours of 12:00 pm and 04:00 pm, optimizing for the postprandial increase in sleepiness. All participants were told the experiment investigated the relationship between rest and cogni- tive flexibility. After reading and signing consent forms, subjects completed an online battery of questionnaires. All subjects were then asked to put on a sleep mask, the Dormio headworn sys- tem, and the Hypnodyne ZMax EEG before lying down and being asked to fall asleep [15]. Subjects were given a 1-h sleep oppor- tunity. Once sleep onset occurred, participants were awakened after 2 epochs of visually scored N1 sleep. During each wakeup, the Dormio device triggered prerecorded audio prompts that requested and then recorded a verbal dream report from the subject. Once subjects finished speaking, the system asked about their sleep state (“And were you asleep?”), to which subjects had been previously instructed to respond “Awake,” “Halfway” or “Asleep.” Participants were then instructed to “remember to think of a tree” and go back to sleep. After the sleep opportunity, dream reports were confirmed via self-reported confirmations, following methods from Horowitz and Horowitz [14, 16]. Ten minutes after their last verbal report, all subjects completed another battery of questionnaires. Upon completion of these surveys, subjects were instructed to keep and submit a dream journal for 1 week and completed another battery of questionnaires after 1 week. Subjects completed a collection of assessments at four-time points relative to the study: (1) during recruitment for the study, (2) immediately prior to TDI, (3) directly after TDI, and (4) 1 week after TDI. We refer to these four-time points as “recruitment,” “pre-TDI,” “post-TDI” and “one-week post-TDI” in our analysis. TDI methods During the TDI protocol, all subjects underwent a prompted hypna- gogic nap, using auditory incubation delivered via the Dormio system to incubate the chosen dream theme (“tree”). Upon lying down, the Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sleepadvances/article/6/2/zpaf013/8063926 by guest on 10 January 2026 Youngren et al. | 3 Dormio instructed participants to “think of a tree.” Once entry into hypnagogia was determined (immediately after two epochs of vis- ually scored N1 sleep was detected), the Dormio alerted participants they were falling asleep (“You’re falling asleep”), asked participants to verbally report the thoughts they were currently having (“Please tell me, what’s going through your mind”), and recorded their verbal response. The system then instructed them to think of the dream prompt (“Remember to think of a tree”) and to go back to sleep (“You can fall back asleep now”). This loop of events was repeated for a total experiment time of 1 h, facilitating multiple entrances to and exits from N1 (although other stages of sleep may have been experi- enced). At the end of the last loop, the experimenter instructed the participant to wake up fully. TDI methods based on Horowitz and Horowitz et al. [14, 17]. Measures Sleep staging. Sleep was scored using a Hypnodyne ZMax EEG. Hypnodyne streams two EEG channels, F7 and F8, both referenced to Fpz. Performance evaluations of the Zmax relative to polysomnogra- phy indicate acceptable levels of sensitivity (68.3 per cent) and inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s Kappa = 57.3; with some limita- tions on staging due to lack of occipital channels) [15, 17]. Visual scoring of N1 sleep was done according to the AASM Manual for Sleep Scoring [18]. Epochs of 30s were used, and awakenings were done after two subsequent epochs of N1 sleep were scored. Assessing incubation. For the purposes of assessing incubation, a direct reference to “tree” is defined as an unambiguous mention of any part of a tree (including tree, forest, branch, or root) while indirect references included sensations, objects, locations, or themes related to “tree” (such as plant, bush, or other tree-like objects), adapting methods from Wamsley and Horowitz [17, 19]. Dream self-efficacy. To assess DSE related to dream content, we used a DSE ques- tionnaire adapted in past research to assess self-efficacy related to dreaming [6]. Both a composite DSE score and two individual items “To what extent do you feel able to control the content of your dreams?” and “When it comes to bad dreams, what will be will be; they are out of my control.” were examined to determine which specific aspects of DSE are impacted. Nightmare frequency. The frequency of nightmares was assessed by the Nightmare Frequency Questionnaire (NFQ) and nightmare-related distress was assessed via the Nightmare Distress Questionnaire (NDQ) [17, 20]. The NFQ is a 3-item self-report questionnaire that gauges the frequency of nightmare occurrences, while the NDQ is a 13-item self-report scale that assesses distress caused by night- mares [20, 21]. Dream journal. After the TDI protocol, participants were asked to keep an elec- tronic dream journal. Participants were asked to write (electroni- cally) down their dreams in a journal each morning immediately after awakening. After writing their dream(s) they were then asked to report if the dreams were related to a “tree” in any way. After completing the journal for a week, participants copy and pasted the contents of their dream journal into the electronically sent survey (that included the 1-week postsurvey battery). Analyses Descriptive analyses were used to examine sample characteris- tics, as well as percentage of successful dream incubation (for total TDI sessions, not individual attempts). Using linear regres- sions, success of incubations will be examined as a predictor of changes in DSE following TDI (both immediately and 1-week follow-up). In order to examine our primary aim (the effect of TDI on DSE) one-way repeated measure ANOVA analyses were used (while controlling for gender and age differences) to examine the differences in DSE scores across three time-points (pre-TDI, post-TDI, 1-week post-TDI). To further examine what aspects of DSE were being impacted, when examining DSE pre-TDI, post- TDI, and 1-week post-TDI we examined both a composite DSE score and from the two aforementioned individual items. Lastly, pairwise comparison analyses were used to examine differences in DSE scores between different time points. For post hoc analy- ses, nonparametric analyses were used to examine participants who reported frequent nightmares and participants who did not report frequent nightmares (all while controlling for gender and age differences). Results Dream incorporation Three subjects were excluded from analyses for failure to fall asleep. Of the 25 participants included in the analysis, 23 of them (92 per cent) reported at least one direct incorporation of the theme “Tree” during N1 sleep. On average, participants reported 1.96 incorporations in 4.83 N1 episodes during the 1-h nap; 40.6 per cent of awakenings were accompanied by direct incorpora- tions of a tree into a dream report. Of the 25 participants included in the analysis, 10 (42 per cent) reported direct incorporation in the week following TDI (assessed via dream journal reports). This success rate is similar to past studies using the Dormio [14, 16, 22]. Primary analyses Results showed that the time relative to the period of TDI (pre- TDI, post-TDI, and 1-week post-TDI) led to statistically significant differences in DSE responses (F (2, 46) = 5.31, p = .008). Analyses indicated a significant increase in DSE composite responses imme- diately after the period of TDI (pre-TDI vs. post-TDI; DSE = 1.02; p = .003; Figure 1), with no further significant change in responses 1 week later (post-TDI vs 1 week later, p = .86). Additionally, we found a significant difference between pre-TDI and 1-week post- TDI in the DSE composite score (μ = 0.50, p = .042). However, we did not find a significant difference between the pre-TDI and 1-week post-TDI with either of the individual items (p > .05). For differences on individual DSE items between pre, post, and 1-week post-TDI see Figures 2 and 3. Post hoc analyses demonstrate that the effect of TDI on DSE correlates with the degree of direct incorporation of incubation themes into dreams, wherein more effective incubation increases postsleep DSE incrementally. The degree of success of the TDI pro- tocol is predictive of the change in DSE from the pre-TDI period to both immediately after the TDI period (β = 0.6, p < .05, R2 = 0.19) and 1-week following the TDI period (β = 0.35, p < .05, R2 = 0.12). Nightmares Subjects reporting a nightmare frequency of ≥1 nightmare/week at recruitment (n = 11) did not have any significant differences Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/sleepadvances/article/6/2/zpaf013/8063926 by guest on 10 January 2026 ----------- https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389686563_Targeted_dream_incubation_and_dream_self-efficacy Targeted dream incubation and dream self-efficacy March 2025SLEEP Advances 6(2) DOI:10.1093/sleepadvances/zpaf013 LicenseCC BY-NC-ND 4.0 Authors: Westley A Youngren Adam Haar Horowitz Massachusetts Institute of Technology Victoria West Staples Michelle Carr This preliminary study investigates the potential for a technique that enables purposeful guiding of dream content (Targeted Dream Incubation; TDI) to change the degree to which an individual feels in control of their dreams (Dream Self-Efficacy; DSE). DSE is a subset of a larger concept of self-efficacy relating to one’s belief in their own abilities and competencies. Examining DSE may be quite important, as past research has demonstrated that DSE may be linked to positive treatment outcomes in specific therapies, such as interventions for trauma-related nightmares. Furthermore, prior research has found that decreasing feelings of helplessness related to sleep has been shown to improve insomnia symptoms and daytime fatigue. Thus, our study sought to examine the relationship between TDI and DSE. We enrolled N = 25 participants in a TDI protocol conducted during a predominantly N1 sleep nap, where participants completed surveys before and after a TDI paradigm. Our results revealed that TDI was linked to DSE, with individuals reporting significantly higher levels of DSE after the TDI protocol. These results provide preliminary evidence for a technique (TDI) that could increase DSE with the overall aim of improving the efficacy of specific sleep-related interventions, such as treatments for trauma-related nightmares. Future research should aim to further confirm these results with a control condition and examine the effects of TDI within the context of behavioral sleep interventions. -------- https://esrs.eu/news/sleep-science-friday/early-career-network-age-of-technology/ Early Career Network Committee 2024-2026: Sleep in the Age of Technology ByESRS 17 January 2025 Picture of Dr. Adriana Michalak Dr. Adriana Michalak Postdoctoral Fellow in Dream Engineering at the IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca, Italy. Chair & Board Representative of Early Career Network (ECN). Vice-Chair of Gender Equality Forum (GEF). More on LinkedIn. 2024-2026 Vision of the Early Career Network We, the members of the Early Career Network (ECN), are excited to present our 2024-2026 theme, ‘Sleep in the Age of Technology’. Our goal is to explore how technological advancements can enhance sleep research and clinical practice, while also considering the ethical use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and its relationship to sustainability. Stay tuned for webinars, interviews, and journal clubs on this timely topic! Technological Innovations in Sleep Medical-grade AI-driven examinations and wearable devices are transforming sleep medicine by enabling faster diagnosis and personalized treatments. Future advancements, such as integrating AI with home-based monitoring systems, could further revolutionize sleep research and longitudinal health data acquisition, providing better insights into chronic conditions, lifestyle factors, and long-term health trends. Alongside this, the rise of non-medical apps and devices, like sleep trackers, raises questions about their effectiveness and potential risks, such as orthosomnia—an unhealthy fixation on perfecting sleep data that can actually worsen sleep quality. Which commercial tools are genuinely effective, and which are simply clever marketing tactics designed to capitalize on customer data? A dialogue between technology experts, the scientific community, clinicians and consumers is essential to enhance societal technological literacy. We look forward to addressing the benefits and pitfalls of current technological advancements in clinical and non-clinical sleep research during our ‘Sleep in the Age of Technology’ webinar series. Let’s Keep Together for a Sustainable Future Building on the efforts of the ECN Committee 2022-2024, we will continue to focus on sustainability, particularly within the context of AI. Further advancements in AI and sleep research requires a well-planned approach, rather than an over-reliance on increasingly larger models, that come with a significant environmental footprint, including high energy consumption and water usage for cooling systems. Therefore, if you are an AI expert in sleep research, we encourage you to report the CO₂ impact and energy consumption associated with training new models to help acknowledge and mitigate their environmental costs. Our Network for Early Career Sleep Researchers and Clinicians In celebration of the ECN’s 11th anniversary, we continue to strengthen our peer network of early-career sleep researchers and clinicians, believing that collaboration and support can lead to greater success and advancement within the field. We aim to engage with you through our social media channels to get to know you better! Our goal is to make the ECN LinkedIn group along with our LinkedIn and BlueSky profiles a friendly space for networking, sharing ideas, and celebrating our shared passion for sleep research. Sleep in the Age of Technology Without further ado, we are activating our neural networks to deliver great content related to Sleep in the Age of Technology, optimized for technological awareness and ethical considerations, engineered with sustainability at its core—all powered by the best speakers!# With best wishes, Adriana, Anna, Lieve, Laura, Matias, Michaela & Monisha, Your Early Career Network Committee 2024-2026 ----------- ESRS Reminders 2025 eSleep Congress Registration for the Public Health Track is now available Register Today 2025_Sleep Medicine_Open for Application ESRS Sleep Medicine Examination Only 2 weeks left to apply Apply now 2025 Sleep and Breathing Register by 27 January, 2025 for the early-bird discounted fee. Register Now Order Sleep Medicine Textbook Recent publications from ESRS members Jones-Tabah et al (2024),The Parkinson’s disease risk gene cathepsin B promotes fibrillar alpha-synuclein clearance, lysosomal function and glucocerebrosidase activity in dopaminergic neurons. Mol Neurodegener -====== https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11239541/ Frontiers in Psychiatry logo Front Psychiatry . 2024 Jun 28;15:1413961. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1413961 Effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation on sleep structure and quality in children with autism Juan Yan 1, Yan Zhang 2,*, Junjie Wang 1, Guidong Zhu 2, Kaijie Fang 1 PMCID: PMC11239541 PMID: 39006818 Abstract Introduction Sleep disorders are common in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can influence the excitability of neuronal cells in stimulated areas, leading to improvements in sleep and other autistic symptoms. However, studies on clinical mechanisms of TMS in treating sleep disorders associated with ASD are limited. Therefore, we aimed to explore the effects of TMS on sleep structure and quality in children with ASD. Methods Between January 2020 and December 2021, recruitment was advertised through child and adolescent outpatient clinics and online platforms by the Hangzhou Seventh People’s Hospital and Lishui Second People’s Hospital. Sixty children with ASD who met the diagnostic criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, were selected and randomly divided into the active TMS and sham TMS treatment groups. Thirty healthy children of the same age were recruited as controls. The active TMS group received bilateral low-frequency (0.5 Hz) TMS targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on both sides in children with ASD, whereas the sham TMS group received sham stimulation with the same stimulation time and location as the experimental group. Both groups were treated for 6 weeks, and the participants were assessed using the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC) before treatment, at 3 weeks, and at 6 weeks of intervention. Independent sample t-tests and difference t-tests were used for statistical analysis of the data. Results No significant differences were observed in general demographic variables, such as age and sex, between the ASD and control groups (P>0.05). Independent sample t-test analysis showed that the total SDSC score, difficulty falling asleep, sleep maintenance, awakening disorders, sleep-wake transition disorders, excessive daytime sleepiness, and nocturnal hyperhidrosis scores were significantly higher in the ASD group than in the control group (P<0.05). Before treatment, no significant differences were observed in the factor or total SDSC scores between the sham TMS group and the active TMS group (P>0.05). After 15 and 30 treatment sessions, the total SDSC score, difficulty falling asleep, sleep maintenance, sleep-wake transition disorders, and excessive daytime sleepiness scores were significantly higher in the sham TMS group than in the active TMS group (P<0.05). The difference t-test analysis showed that after 30 treatment sessions, the reduction rates of the total SDSC score, difficulty falling asleep, sleep maintenance, awakening disorders, sleep-wake transition disorders, excessive daytime sleepiness, and nocturnal hyperhidrosis dimensions were significantly higher in the active TMS group than in the sham TMS group (P<0.05). ------------- https://esrs.eu/news/sleep-science-friday/targeted-memory-reactivation-during-sleep/ Targeted memory reactivation during sleep ByESRS 30 August 2024 Picture of Dr. Rebeca Sifuentes Ortega Dr. Rebeca Sifuentes Ortega Affiliated with the Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Research Unit (UR2NF) at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium. She recently completed her PhD, which focused on sensory information processing and memory consolidation during sleep. More on Research Gate Does targeted memory reactivation during slow-wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep have differential effects on mnemonic discrimination and generalization? In the following interview, Rebeca Sifuentes Ortega will discuss her latest research, which she co-authored (as lead author), entitled “Does targeted memory reactivation during slow-wave sleep and rapid eye movement sleep have differential effects on mnemonic discrimination and generalization?”. 1. The current study has focused on the targeted memory reactivation and its implications for memory performance in different sleep stages. How would you define TMR? Targeted Memory Reactivation, or TMR, is a technique based on the observation that learning-related patterns of neuronal activity spontaneously reactivate during sleep. This natural process is believed to aid in the stabilization and integration of memories into long-term storage. TMR builds on this concept by creating associations between specific sensory cues—like sounds, smells, or words— and learning material while participants are awake. Then, these cues, or reminders, are presented again during sleep without waking the person, potentially leading to improved memory performance for the cued associations during a post-sleep test. The idea behind TMR is that by reactivating these memory traces during sleep, we can influence how effectively these memories are consolidated or transformed in the brain. For instance, research has shown that using TMR during non-REM sleep stages N2 and N3 can effectively modify memory consolidation processes, resulting in improved post-sleep memory performance, although the effects are generally small to moderate. 2. What were the hypotheses addressed in this research? Could you describe the aim of your study and main objectives? Our study aimed to investigate whether TMR has different effects on memory depending on whether it is applied during SWS or REM sleep. Specifically, we wanted to see if TMR during these different sleep stages would influence two key memory processes: mnemonic discrimination (the ability to distinguish between very similar items) and memory generalization (the ability to extract commonalities across items in a semantic category). Our objective was to understand if these processes are uniquely supported by different stages of sleep, providing insights into how sleep contributes to memory transformation. We had two main hypotheses. First, based on the well-established effect of non-REM TMR to improve memory consolidation, we hypothesized that TMR during SWS would strengthen specific memory traces. In other words, we expected participants to have better recall of details and more precise memory discrimination for category items linked to the cues replayed during this state (these items were pictures of objects from distinct semantic categories). Second, considering some evidence that REM TMR may promote memory generalization, we hypothesized that reactivating a subset of learned categories during REM sleep would lead participants to better generalize across similar, but previously unseen, items at the expense of losing specific memory details. 3.TMR is considered a research tool. Portray the study design and methods. Forty-eight healthy adults, aged 20-35, were randomly assigned to either an SWS TMR group or a REM TMR group. During the experimental night, participants completed a mnemonic discrimination task, where they memorized sound-picture pairs of eight semantic categories. After this, polysomnography was used to monitor sleep stages and TMR was conducted by playing a subset of sounds associated with the picture categories either during SWS or REM sleep. Memory performance was assessed again after sleep to evaluate how TMR impacted mnemonic discrimination, memory for specific details, and generalization. 4. Could you describe the main outcomes? Are there any study limitations? The main outcomes of the study showed that TMR during sleep did not result in significant differences in memory performance between the SWS and REM TMR groups. Specifically, our measures of memory specificity and generalization did not differ between the TMR groups or between reactivated and non-reactivated categories. An exploratory analysis suggested that TMR might enhance mnemonic discrimination for highly similar items, regardless of the sleep state during which TMR was performed. However, further research is needed to better understand the effect of TMR on discriminating items with varying levels of similarity. Several limitations may explain the lack of significant findings in the study. First, although previous research has shown it to be feasible, using a single sound cue to reactivate multiple items within a category could have caused interference, weakening the association between the sound and specific objects within a category, potentially reducing the effectiveness of TMR. Another possibility is that the mnemonic discrimination task, a kind of recognition memory task, used might not have been sensitive enough to detect subtle effects of TMR on memory performance. 5. Which future perspectives could this study disclose? In this study we expanded the scope of TMR research by exploring its effects beyond merely strengthening specific memories, focusing on other memory transformation processes and investigating TMR during REM sleep, which has been less studied compared to non-REM sleep. Our study shows that TMR effects are not always consistent, and perhaps depend on the type of memory being reactivated and the nature of the associations formed during learning. Although we did not find effects of TMR on memory, our study sets the stage for future research to optimize TMR techniques and better understand the conditions under which TMR might significantly influence memory consolidation and transformation. While our study focused on immediate post-sleep performance, future studies examining generalization or gist abstraction could explore whether TMR’s benefits become more apparent over days or weeks, potentially revealing effects that are not evident in the short term. Additionally, future research might also examine the differential impact of TMR on other types of memory tasks to identify which cognitive processes are most susceptible to enhancement through TMR. Link to Paper: Sifuentes Ortega R, Peigneux P. (2024), Does Targeted Memory Reactivation during SWS and REM sleep have differential effects on mnemonic discrimination and generalization? Sleep. Recent publications from ESRS members G Ravindran KK et al (2024), Reliable Contactless Monitoring of Heart Rate, Breathing Rate, and Breathing Disturbance During Sleep in Aging: Digital Health Technology Evaluation Study. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. Schwarz EI et al (2024), Sex differences in sleep and sleep-disordered breathing. Curr Opin Pulm Med. Knutzen SM et al (2024), Efficacy of eHealth Versus In-Person Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Insomnia: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Equivalence. JMIR Ment Health. Lepeu G, van Maren E et al (2024), The critical dynamics of hippocampal seizures. Nat Commun. ------------- President's Message September 2024 Dear Friends and Colleagues, As we enter the final countdown to Sleep Europe 2024, and my final President`s newsletter, I want to take a moment to reflect on the past four years and thank you, the membership of ESRS, for entrusting me to lead the society. Over the past four years, ESRS went through a lot of firsts in its 52 year history. We held our first virtual congress and started a new tradition by offering a fully virtual event (eSleep) in odd years which we are already planning to continue into 2025.  ESRS initiated and funded the Sleep Europe Foundation (sef) to support the next generation of sleep researchers. We now offer more Sleep Europe travel grants to support participation of early career researchers, families, and lower income countries. We are also encouraging sustainable travel with designated grants as well as offering digital participation at the highly discounted rate of 40 EUR colleagues from lower and lower-middle-income countries. We aim to make sleep science accessible to all. Even outside of the traditional congress, we have established a tradition of webinars covering hot topics and new research in a timely manner. As the voice of sleep in Europe, ESRS have established formal connections and joint programming with relevant societies like the EPA and FENS and strengthened our working relationships with the European Respiratory Society (ERS) via a signed Memorandum of Understanding and the continuation of the Sleep and Breathing conference. ESRS has also supported the revision and publication of European guidelines for clinical practice. I am proud that we were able to hold in person Sleep Science Schools in 2021 and 2023 and ESRS offered its first Paediatric Sleep School in 2024. This year ANSS hosted Beyond Boundaries in person once again as well with a successful course taking place in Georgia, one of our newest ANSS member countries. These are just some of the highlights, from the past four years. The ESRS could not have accomplished all of this without the support of the staff which has now grown to five part time individuals and three project based contractors. After nine years with the ESRS, Axel Wiechmann will deliver his final examination this month. Erica Schwebs has been promoted to Education Manager and Ana Rocha was hired as Marketing Manager. I am confident the society is in good hands for continued success. I was elected in a virtual meeting and am very much looking forward to shaking the hand of the next ESRS President later this month in Seville with all of you.  Please be reminded that the Call for Nominations for positions on the ESRS Board and Scientific Committee will close in less than one week. If you have been considering submitting a nomination, now is the time to act. These positions are important for steering the strategic direction of our society, and your contributions are highly valued. This year, all voting is being conducted online. Voting on Bylaws amendments is currently open and you will be able to vote for Board and Scientific Committee positions from 12 – 25 September. You will need to login to your ESRS account, if you are unsure of your password, please reset it now. I remind you to attend the ESRS Business Meeting in Seville on Thursday, 26 September at 19:00 CEST, as we welcome in newly elected officers and present the ESRS update. Last but certainly not least, I can hardly believe that we have over 3,200 participants already registered to attend Sleep Europe where more than 1600 scientific posters will be on display. This will be the largest and most influential gathering of sleep professionals in Europe. If you have not yet planned to be in Seville, you can still register right up until the start of the congress to join us onsite or digitally Kind regards, Pierre-Hervé Luppi ---------- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28694337/ Full text links HighWire full text link Actions Page navigation Title & authors Abstract Figures Similar articles Cited by References Publication types MeSH terms Related information LinkOut - more resources J Neurosci . 2017 Aug 9;37(32):7748-7758. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3537-16.2017. Epub 2017 Jul 10. Targeted Memory Reactivation during Sleep Adaptively Promotes the Strengthening or Weakening of Overlapping Memories Javiera P Oyarzún 1 2 , Joaquín Morís 3 , David Luque 4 5 , Ruth de Diego-Balaguer 6 2 7 8 , Lluís Fuentemilla 6 2 8 Affiliations Affiliations 1 Department of Cognition, Development and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain, javi.oyarzunb@gmail.com. 2 Cognition and Brain Plasticity Group, IDIBELL, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08097 Barcelona, Spain. 3 Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, 33003 Oviedo, Spain. 4 Instituto de Investigación Biomédica de Málaga, University of Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain. 5 School of Psychology, University of New South Wales Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia. 6 Department of Cognition, Development and Educational Psychology, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain. 7 ICREA, Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies, 08010 Barcelona, Spain, and. 8 Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain. PMID: 28694337 PMCID: PMC6596642 DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3537-16.2017 Abstract System memory consolidation is conceptualized as an active process whereby newly encoded memory representations are strengthened through selective memory reactivation during sleep. However, our learning experience is highly overlapping in content (i.e., shares common elements), and memories of these events are organized in an intricate network of overlapping associated events. It remains to be explored whether and how selective memory reactivation during sleep has an impact on these overlapping memories acquired during awake time. Here, we test in a group of adult women and men the prediction that selective memory reactivation during sleep entails the reactivation of associated events and that this may lead the brain to adaptively regulate whether these associated memories are strengthened or pruned from memory networks on the basis of their relative associative strength with the shared element. Our findings demonstrate the existence of efficient regulatory neural mechanisms governing how complex memory networks are shaped during sleep as a function of their associative memory strength.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Numerous studies have demonstrated that system memory consolidation is an active, selective, and sleep-dependent process in which only subsets of new memories become stabilized through their reactivation. However, the learning experience is highly overlapping in content and thus events are encoded in an intricate network of related memories. It remains to be explored whether and how memory reactivation has an impact on overlapping memories acquired during awake time. Here, we show that sleep memory reactivation promotes strengthening and weakening of overlapping memories based on their associative memory strength. These results suggest the existence of an efficient regulatory neural mechanism that avoids the formation of cluttered memory representation of multiple events and promotes stabilization of complex memory networks. Keywords: EEG; episodic memory; reactivation; sleep; strengthening; weakening. Copyright © 2017 the authors 0270-6474/17/377748-11$15.00/0. ----------- https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00028/full ORIGINAL RESEARCH article Front. Hum. Neurosci., 06 February 2018 Sec. Brain Imaging and Stimulation Volume 12 - 2018 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00028 Closed-Loop Targeted Memory Reactivation during Sleep Improves Spatial Navigation Renee E. ShimizuRenee E. Shimizu1Patrick M. ConnollyPatrick M. Connolly1Nicola Cellini,Nicola Cellini2,3Diana M. ArmstrongDiana M. Armstrong4Lexus T. HernandezLexus T. Hernandez2Rolando EstradaRolando Estrada1Mario AguilarMario Aguilar1Michael P. WeisendMichael P. Weisend4Sara C. MednickSara C. Mednick2Stephen B. Simons*Stephen B. Simons1* 1Teledyne Scientific & Imaging, Durham, NC, United States 2Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States 3Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy 4Rio Grande Neurosciences, Dayton, OH, United States Sounds associated with newly learned information that are replayed during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep can improve recall in simple tasks. The mechanism for this improvement is presumed to be reactivation of the newly learned memory during sleep when consolidation takes place. We have developed an EEG-based closed-loop system to precisely deliver sensory stimulation at the time of down-state to up-state transitions during NREM sleep. Here, we demonstrate that applying this technology to participants performing a realistic navigation task in virtual reality results in a significant improvement in navigation efficiency after sleep that is accompanied by increases in the spectral power especially in the fast (12–15 Hz) sleep spindle band. Our results show promise for the application of sleep-based interventions to drive improvement in real-world tasks. Introduction Sleep may facilitate the transformation of recent fragile memories into stable long-term memories. Compared with an equivalent period of wake, performance in several memory domains demonstrates a greater magnitude of improvement after sleep (Rasch and Born, 2013). Several electrophysiological features of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep have been linked with memory consolidation, with the majority of these studies focusing on the role of slow wave activity, which refers to the low-frequency oscillations (0.05–4 Hz) that characterize deeper NREM sleep (e.g., Gais et al., 2002; Wilhelm et al., 2014). Slow oscillations (SOs) originate in the cortex and reflect synchronized neural fluctuations between hyperpolarized down-states and depolarized up-states. Spindles, another prominent NREM sleep feature consisting of 9–15 Hz oscillatory bursts, have gained attention for their role in hippocampal-cortical communication and declarative memory consolidation during sleep. Correlational studies have shown that the number of sleep spindles increases following hippocampal-dependent learning (Eschenko et al., 2006) and spindles are temporally coupled with hippocampal sharp wave ripples in rodents (Siapas and Wilson, 1998) and in humans (Staresina et al., 2015). They may facilitate the integration of newly learned information with existing knowledge (Tamminen et al., 2013) and are correlated with better retention of declarative memories in humans (Gais et al., 2002; Schabus et al., 2004; Clemens et al., 2005; Schmidt et al., 2006). A third electrophysiological feature of NREM sleep are hippocampal sharp wave-ripples, short high-frequency bursts that coincide with reactivations of neurons that were active during learning (e.g., Wilson and McNaughton, 1994). Temporal coupling of SOs, spindles, and hippocampal sharp wave-ripples may be a key mechanism underlying the hippocampal-neocortical dialog characteristic of systems consolidation. The drug zolpidem (Ambien) increased the temporal consistency of spindle occurrences during the down-to-up phase of slow oscillations (Niknazar et al., 2015). Furthermore, later performance improvement was correlated with this spindle/SO timing. This suggests that declarative memory consolidation is facilitated when thalamic spindles coincide with the down-to-up phase of cortical SOs. Thus SOs may provide a top-down temporal frame for these oscillatory events (Crunelli and Hughes, 2010; Lemieux et al., 2014). Specifically, individual hippocampal sharp wave ripple events appear to be nested in the trough of succeeding spindles (Timofeev and Bazhenov, 2005; Staresina et al., 2015), and these spindle-ripple events may represent a bottom-up mechanism whereby reactivated hippocampal memory information (coded in ripples) is passed to spindles, which then reach neocortical networks via the SO (Born et al., 2006; Diekelmann and Born, 2010). Recently, Yordanova et al. (2017) have shown that the temporal coupling of SO up-states and spindles is greater in the hemisphere that had been activated during prior learning. Targeted memory reactivation (TMR) has been successful in enhancing memory during sleep using external stimulation. The TMR approach associates sensory stimuli (e.g., odor or sound cue) with target information during encoding and then presents the same cues during sleep to facilitate memory consolidation, including visuospatial (Rasch et al., 2007; Rudoy et al., 2009; van Dongen et al., 2012; Creery et al., 2015), verbal memories (Schreiner and Rasch, 2014; Batterink and Paller, 2017) and fear extinction (He et al., 2015). The strength of specific memory enhancement appears to depend on the timing relative to the phase of the SO, although most studies have thus far delivered cues using an open-loop approach during NREM stage 3 sleep (Batterink et al., 2016). Batterink et al. (2016) demonstrated that the largest memory benefit occurred when TMR cues were delivered during the descending phase of the SO down state, which presumably allowed for the cue information to be processed by the cortex and hippocampus during their up states. This suggests that the largest memory benefits may be realized when the cues are delivered during the transition from cortical down states to up states. In the current study, we developed a novel method to enhance sleep spindles and spatial navigation skills using closed-loop targeted memory reactivation (CL-TMR) time-locked to the down-state to up-state transitions (DUPTs) of SOs. We tested navigation ability at multiple time points across 3 days in order to determine when the benefits of CL-TMR emerge, and how long they are observed. DUPTs were targeted to increase the likelihood of affecting spindles during the rising phase and peak of the SO. In this study, we did not investigate whether the closed-loop cue delivery confers significant benefit when compared with an open-loop approach. Multiple studies suggest that TMR may be most effective when time-locked to the DUPTs (Niknazar et al., 2015; Batterink et al., 2016), and a recent non-peer reviewed study has shown that when cues are delivered during the down state, memory enhancement is superior when compared with the effect observed when cues are delivered during the up state (Göldi et al., unpublished). The goal of this study was to develop a robust methodology for reliably delivering stimuli during DUPTs and to demonstrate that CL-TMR can be used to drive performance gains in ecologically valid, complex learning tasks over longer periods of time. ---------- https://news.va.gov/ VA Health and Benefits App The VA Health and Benefits mobile app puts your VA health and benefit information and resources at your fingertips — anywhere, anytime! 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Use Ask VA to send us your questions, updates, and documents online. Contact us online through Ask VA Media inquiries should be directed to the Office of Media Relations at vapublicaffairs@va.gov Sign up for our newsletter Last updated November 3, 2025 United States Department of Veterans Affairs U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs 810 Vermont Ave., NW Washington, DC 20420 1-800-698-2411 VA News An official website of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Looking for U.S. government information and services? Visit USA.gov Go to Top -------- https://news.va.gov/144353/transcranial-magnetic-stimulation-offers-hope/ Home Health Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation offers hope Black and white image of a woman in military uniform next to the text "From Struggle to Strength: Shirley Benoit's Journey with TMS" on a blurred background. TMS is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation offers hope January 9, 2026 Katie Butler Public Affairs Specialist, Malcom Randall VA Medical Center Share this story Facebook Twitter LinkedIn Reddit Telegram Tumblr WhatsApp Email Appears In Health For Veteran living with depression For Army Veteran Shirley Benoit, the battle with depression lasted more than a decade. Medications didn’t work and the side effects often made things worse. When she began Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) therapy at VA, she finally found relief. “It was doing something for my depression,” Benoit said. “Now I’m doing the maintenance. It really has helped, even with my back pain.” Benoit served a combined 17 years with the Army National Guard and on active duty, holding roles in combat medicine, supply, engineering, recruiting and administrative support. She first began TMS treatment at the Chillicothe VA Medical Center in Ohio in 2010, when the therapy was just being introduced as an alternative option for Veterans who had not responded well to medication or counseling. After just four weeks, Benoit noticed a change. “I could tell something was working,” she recalled. Now a traveling Veteran who spends time in Ohio and Florida, Benoit also continues her maintenance treatments at the Malcom Randall VA Medical Center in Gainesville. She credits her care team, led by Dr. Milankumar Nathani, psychiatrist at the Malcom Randall VAMC, for making each visit a positive experience.“Dr. Nathani and his staff, their patience, their professionalism, the way they handle me, I know that I’m important,” she said. “They listen. They are compassionate about me and the way I feel.” How TMS treatment works TMS is a non-invasive treatment that uses magnetic pulses to stimulate areas of the brain linked to mood regulation. It’s typically recommended for Veterans diagnosed with major depressive disorder or obsessive-compulsive disorder, particularly when medications or traditional therapy haven’t provided sufficient relief. During treatment, Veterans sit comfortably in a chair while a magnetic coil is placed against the scalp. The device delivers gentle tapping sensations for about 20 to 30 minutes, five days a week, for four to six weeks. Many patients begin noticing improvement after just a few weeks. Unlike other medical procedures, TMS requires no surgery, anesthesia or needles, and it has few to no side effects. Patients remain awake throughout the session. For Veterans like Benoit, the benefits go beyond symptom relief, they represent a return to hope. Veterans interested in learning more about TMS can speak with their VA mental health provider to see if the therapy is right for them. This article was originally published on the VA North Florida/South Georgia Health care System site and has been edited for style and clarity. ------------ https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7590944/#:~:text=The%20Targeted%20Dream%20Incubation%20(TDI)%20protocol%20is,role%20of%20dream%20content%20in%20post%2Dsleep%20performance. Future studies will look at the predictive power of system thresholds combining these presumptive values. 4. Discussion 4.1. Dormio: The Dream Incubation Device The Targeted Dream Incubation (TDI) protocol is designed for controlled generation of specific dream content at sleep onset, enabling experiments which probe the causal role of dream content in post-sleep performance. This protocol is available to anyone with an array of sensors that can track sleep onset, as well as deliver and record audio. Dormio is designed to enact this protocol automatically, making the TDI protocol mobile and cheap in comparison to techniques that require PSG. Though the choosing not to use PSG for TDI will likely lead to less specificity in staging sleep onset, given the extensive evidence that sleep onset imagery occurs from early drowsiness into the early minutes of stage 2 NREM sleep (Rowley, Stickgold, and Hobson 1998; Nielsen, 2017), Dormio has a large margin of error for which sleep onset detection can be tolerated without sacrificing the hypnagogic dream incubation goal. This paper presents results suggesting that the Dormio device can track sleep onset with enough specificity and collect dream reports with sufficient reliability to enact TDI, incubating and capturing experimenter-chosen themes in hypnagogic dreams. Results suggest Dormio is an effective dream incubation device, with 67% of Sleep+Tree awakenings yielding dream reports that incorporate the auditory prime, ‘Tree’, automatically captured by Dormio’s audio recording system. There are significant limitations to keep in mind when interpreting this experiment. The age range of participants is limited, and all are university-affiliated, yielding a somewhat homogenous population. This study, designed to investigate efficacy of TDI using only Dormio, did not have PSG measurements. This leaves us with little information as to where participants were awoken within the range of the sleep-onset process, and means experimenters must trust verbal reports with regards to sleep onset, which can be unreliable. Further, there is a methodological issue with trusting dream reports, as dreams can be forgotten or fabricated due to demand characteristics. We are aware of these issues in the TDI protocol, and look forward to future techniques which allow for direct capture of dream reports via neurophysiology as opposed to subjective report. Future studies on TDI should use multiple incubation themes, as opposed to our single theme ‘Tree’, as semantic or syntactic characteristic of auditory primes may influence incubation rates. Regardless of these limitations we think the Dormio device and TDI protocol warrant future study, and enable researchers to ask new questions about dream-related cognitive enhancement. The potential utility for a device like Dormio to specifically enhance performance on a task pre-determined by the user is tantalizing. Significant correlations between dream content and sleep-dependent memory processing have been reported in several studies, which used a variety of learning tasks, including learning a story (Barrett 1993; Nielsen and Stenstrom 2005)), a foreign language (De Koninck et al. 1990), word-picture associations (Schoch et al. 2019), a visual maze (Wamsley & Tucker, 2010; Wamsley & Stickgold, 2019), and explicit visuospatial memories (Plailly et al. 2019), although others have failed to find significant correlations (see Plailly et al., 2019 for summary). Taken as a whole, these studies provide substantial support for the existence of such correlations, although not necessarily for all forms of memory encoding. While correlations have been found, no studies have attempted to show a causal relationship between dream incorporation, and memory consolidation. 4.2. Uses of Targeted Dream Incubation(TDI) Establishing a causal link between dream incorporation and sleep-dependent memory processing requires the experimental manipulation of dream content through targeted dream incubation. The design of one such experiment is shown in Fig 5. This design tests the hypothesis that inducing dreams about the cue in a word pair enhances recall of the associated target word. Comparisons between the dream incubation condition and control conditions could confirm the specific contribution of dreaming about the cue word to subsequent, post-sleep memory enhancement. 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In our lab, we have used the Dormio device to carry out a TDI protocol using auditory stimuli. Credit: Fluid Interfaces group Frequently Asked Questions What is targeted dream incubation (TDI)? How does TDI work? How is TDI different from Targeted Memory Reactivation (TMR)? Why incubate dreams? Which studies have used TDI? What practices or past work inspired the development of TDI? Where can I read more about dream science? What is targeted dream incubation (TDI)? Targeted dream incubation (TDI) is a method for guiding (or “incubating”) dreams towards specific themes. In our lab, we have mainly explored using auditory and olfactory stimuli to achieve TDI, but the TDI methodology encompasses a wide range of possible interventions to achieve guiding dreams. The TDI protocol also includes serial awakenings that enable collection of dream reports following the incubation of a dream. How does TDI work? So far, we have applied TDI to Stage 1 (also called NREM1 or N1) sleep, which is the first stage of sleep. During sleep onset, hypnagogia (a special state occurring in the transition from wakefulness to sleep) occurs. Sleep onset is characterized by a gradual, piece-by-piece descent into sleep, as opposed to a sudden, binary on/off switch from wakefulness to sleep which some people imagine occurs. In fact, there are nine separate substages of sleep onset. In the middle of this gradual transition from wakefulness to sleep, the brain maintains sensitivity to outside stimuli (for example, people can still hear sounds and smell scents in the space around them) even as the brain enters a more dream-like state, both in terms of physiology and mental experience. In our work, we use a TDI protocol with auditory stimulation to guide sleep onset (N1) dreams. We carry out our TDI protocol with the Dormio system (read more on Dormio here), but TDI can be carried out with any combination of tools that can track sleep stages, play stimuli, and record dream reports. A person wears Dormio and lies down to fall asleep. The Dormio system tracks sleep onset. Once sleep onset is detected, a timer of a few minutes is started. At the end of the timer, an audio recording is played to ask the user for a dream report, bringing the wearer back into wakefulness briefly. We record everything the user says during their dream report, to avoid them forgetting a potentially useful idea. Following their dream report, the system then plays an audio cue, reminding the wearer to think of certain words (like "fork" or "rabbit"), with the aim of integrating the cued topic into their next set of dreams. The user then drifts back to sleep, with the cue in mind. In our laboratory testing, we have found that the cued words reliably entered the hypnagogic dreams of our users. The system continues to track the state (awake or asleep) of the user, repeating the process described above of waking them up after a few minutes of sleep to collect a dream report. This protocol is carried out repeatedly to guide dreams and collect dream reports. To better understand how our auditory stimulus makes its way into people’s dreams, just consider “a lion playing volleyball underwater.” This phrase, even written, conjures a mental image. The creation of a mental image from words also happens at sleep onset. Words heard by the napper just as they fall asleep serve as a seed for mental images/thoughts, allowing the ideas to slip into their dream. We wake the subject up after a few minutes and request a dream report in order to avoid them slipping into a deeper sleep, at which point the likelihood they forget their dream would increase. We began this work using the Dormio device for tracking sleep so we could incubate dreams. Since then we have also used the Masca, the Hypnodyne, and even typical polysomnography to enact TDI and produce targeted dreams. We emphasize that our TDI protocol can be carried out using a variety of technologies to track sleep, play, and record audio. We are working on new ways to do low-tech dream incubation, such as through just an online timer interface: https://christinatchen.github.io/dormio/timer. How is TDI different from Targeted Memory Reactivation (TMR)? TDI is similar to a technique called Targeted Memory Reactivation (TMR). In this TMR, sensory cues are paired with a task while subjects are awake. Then, during a subsequent sleep (which typically includes later phases of sleep such as N2, N3, and REM), these sensory cues are presented again, with the goal of reactivating the memory of the learned material from the task associated with the cue. When the task is tested after sleep, memory performance for items that were cued during sleep is typically better as compared to memory for items not cued during sleep (suggesting important sleep-dependent processing for learning and showing that TMR can affect such processing). TMR is a powerful technique, but it is not focused on changing dreams, and does not involve collecting dream reports. Instead, it is focused on affecting the topics the sleeping brain is working on consolidating, using cues to direct the brain to augment specific memories over others, without regard for how this is experienced by the sleeper. Why incubate dreams? The first reason is to facilitate personal introspection. We find the idea that there is a state of mind (sleep) which composes and constructs the conscious self, but remains inaccessible to it during the day, both frustrating and alluring. Hypnagogia is a version of oneself that the waking self is unfamiliar with, a self that slips past memory as we drift into unconsciousness. Good neuroscience can aspire to be effective self-examination. Good technology in service of making neuroscience relevant outside the laboratory, then, should facilitate self-examination. The ends of this project are both practical and philosophical. We have no doubt that hypnagogia holds applications for augmenting memory, learning, and creativity. Yet also, after having explored the state ourselves, it seems a deeply valuable and inspiring sort of self-seeing which was inaccessible to us previously. As Nobel Prize winner Eric Kandel said, "human creativity...stems from access to underlying, unconscious forces." To know ourselves, and to be our most creative selves, we are interested in building tools for self-exploration in this sleep state. TDI aims to be a tool for people to use on their own terms to explore and augment themselves. Beyond personal introspection, the second reason this method is so exciting to us is that it opens up new avenues for exploring the mind. Scientifically, having a method to guide dreams means that we can now do controlled experiments on how dreams and dream content influence cognition, including questions about emotion, creativity, memory, and more. We know from correlational studies and anecdotal reports that different dreams are linked to different post-sleep outcomes – such as creative performance and emotion – but without controlled studies, we still lack solid scientific evidence for a causal effect of guiding dreams to improve these outcomes. So long as we cannot guide dreams, we cannot do controlled experiments on dream content. TDI represents a breakthrough in this long standing methodological hurdle. A third reason is to open possibilities in the therapeutic domain. TDI may give patients and clinicians a lever of control to gain insight via dreams and to combat nightmares, which take a huge toll on people who struggle with anxiety and trauma. We have already begun a study in collaboration with Westley Youngren and the Veterans Affairs Office to test this application of TDI. Creatively, the rich history of luminaries using their dreams, and specifically the hypnagogic state (Sylvia Plath, Salvador Dalí, Edgar Allen Poe to name a few), to release creative potential points to the possibility of using TDI for targeted creative brainstorming. We've already run one experiment showing TDI can enhance creativity, but the real test is putting it in the hands of creatives all over. Which studies have used TDI? TDI was published in a 2020 paper in the journal Consciousness and Cognition, which was a collaboration between MIT, Harvard, and Boston College. This paper forms part of the journal’s larger Special Issue on Dream Engineering, collecting papers from sleep scientists around the world on their methods for researching and guiding dreams. This Special Issue came out of the Dream Engineering workshop which we hosted at the MIT Media Lab in 2019, gathering a community of researchers from around the world to empower the dream engineering field and link technologists with scientists for new collaboration. The community of dream engineers is growing; a recent paper from the Gori lab outlines a vision for engineering dreams to understand blindness. Together we’re hoping to generate and answer questions about the parts of our minds which can be hard to see, and make the tools that make answering them possible, and build dream-based therapies and interventions. You can read about our vision for the dream engineering movement here. In addition, TDI was central to Adam Haar Horowitz’s Master's thesis and PhD thesis. The experiments in Adam’s thesis focused on augmenting creativity with TDI (now published in Scientific Reports), using TDI to incubate REM dreams (not yet published), and using TDI to decrease feelings of helplessness/loss of agency related to nightmares (not yet published). If you want to see what the press is saying about those experiments, here is an article in The Scientist and here is one in MIT News. In other labs, TDI is being used in an experiment on PTSD related nightmares at University of Kansas and in an experiment on mind-wandering and dreams at Duke. ------------ What practices or past work inspired the development of TDI? The goal of TDI is both magnetic and unlikely: Can we really “engineer” dreams, our internal worlds that feel so fundamentally out of our control? We are far from the first to be excited about dreams and the possibility of guiding them. The incubation of specific dream content has fascinated people for millennia, from Ancient Egyptian spiritual practices and Canadian Indigenous dream sharing rituals to contemporary treatments for PTSD-related nightmares. While reliable techniques for dream incubation have proven elusive in the laboratory, yet it's crucial to know that targeted dream incubation (TDI) is a modern instantiation of an ancient technique. Here is a great summary of the myriad ways people have historically interfaced with dreams. Understanding that dream incubation is a practice that ranges from sacred to scientific space across cultures, and that it is a potentially powerful way to influence the mind, we are committed to (and continually updating) our ethics on the use of dream influencing technologies. Where can I read more about dream science? Dreams are a vast topic, touching everything from consciousness studies to sensor technologies to indigenous healing practices. Here we list a completely non-exhaustive set of potential ways to learn more about dreams, including many scholars who informed and inspired our own studies. Scientists like Stephen LaBerge and Benjamin Baird do wonderful work on later-stage lucid dreaming, focusing on the REM state. Scientists like Jonathan Smallwood, Paul Seli and Jonathan Schooler have done work on mind-wandering and creativity, inspiring our idea that fluid thinking outside of executive control in hypnagogia (like mind-wandering) could augment creativity. Work by Deirdre Barrett compiling moments of inspiration found in sleep, and work by Robert Stickgold and Tore Nielsen on microdream phenomenology, all encouraged and informed us. Andreas Mavromatis wrote a whole thesis on hypnagogia, and his writing gave us a sense of the poetry and practical applications of this state (as did Nabokov, Oliver Sacks, Yoga Nidra practitioners, and Edgar Allen Poe writing on hypnagogia). We also were inspired by Matthew Spellberg’s writing on dream sharing rituals, Kelly Bulkeley’s work on dreaming in world religions, and Robert Stickgold and Antonio Zadra’s book When Brains Dream. Research Topics #human-computer interaction #art #cognition #health #learning + teaching #neurobiology #wearable computing #behavioral science #ethics #creativity #technology #cognitive science #sleep #industry #wellbeing ------------- https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1501209/full SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article Front. Hum. Neurosci., 03 March 2025 Sec. Brain Imaging and Stimulation Volume 19 - 2025 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1501209 This article is part of the Research TopicMethods in Brain StimulationView all 9 articles Transcutaneous and transcranial electrical stimulation for enhancing military performance: an update and systematic review Onno van der GroenOnno van der Groen1Sara A. RafiqueSara A. Rafique2Nick WillmotNick Willmot1Margaret G. Murphy,Margaret G. Murphy3,4Eulalia TisnovskyEulalia Tisnovsky4Tad T. Bruny, Tad T. Brunyé3,4* 1Defence Science and Technology Group, Human and Decision Sciences, Department of Defence, Edinburgh, SA, Australia 2Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Salisbury, United Kingdom 3U.S. Army DEVCOM Soldier Center, Natick, MA, United States 4Center for Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Tufts University, Medford, MA, United States Introduction: Electrical stimulation (ES), including transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) and transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS), has shown potential for cognitive enhancement in military contexts. Various types of ES, such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), modulate neuronal membrane potentials and cortical excitability, potentially improving cognitive functions relevant to military training and operations. Methods: This systematic review updates previous findings by examining studies published between 2019 and 2024 that investigated electrical stimulation effects on cognitive performance in military personnel and tasks. We focused on whether the studies addressed key questions about the generalizability of lab findings to military tasks, the frequency and intensity of adverse effects, the impact of repeated ES administration, and the ethical and regulatory considerations for its use in potentially vulnerable military populations. Results: Eleven studies met the inclusion criteria; most demonstrated overall low to some concerns, however, two of these had overall high risk of bias. While tES and tVNS showed some promise for enhancing multitasking and visual search performance, the results were mixed, with no reliable effects on vigilance tasks. Discussion: The reviewed studies highlight the need for a better understanding of ES mechanisms, optimal stimulation parameters, and individual differences in response to ES. They also highlight the importance of conducting high-powered research in military settings to evaluate the efficacy, safety, and ethical implications of ES. Future research should address the generalizability of lab-based results to real-world military tasks, monitor the frequency and intensity of adverse effects, and explore the long-term impacts of repeated administration. Furthermore, ethical and regulatory considerations are crucial for the responsible application of ES in military contexts, and a series of outstanding questions is posed to guide continuing research in this domain. 1 Introduction Electrical stimulation (ES) involves administering low intensity (0.5 m–3.0 mA) electrical current (direct or alternating) to the surface of the scalp or skin via two or more electrodes. Mechanistic models of transcranial ES (tES) suggest that the applied electrical current propagates through the skull, dura mater, arachnoid and subarachnoid space to modulate cortical neuronal membrane potentials (Galan-Gadea et al., 2023; Lefaucheur and Wendling, 2019; Molaee-Ardekani et al., 2013; Nitsche et al., 2008; Nitsche and Paulus, 2000; Reato et al., 2019). There are several different types of ES, including transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), transcranial random noise stimulation (tRNS), and transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation (tVNS). tDCS applies a current, which can be excitatory (hypopolarization) or inhibitory (hyperpolarization), influencing local and distal networks of cortical and subcortical neurons (Kunze et al., 2016; Lefaucheur and Wendling, 2019). tACS is thought to influence neuronal oscillations, thereby affecting neuronal communication within the brain (Fries, 2005; Herrmann et al., 2013), and tRNS is a type of tACS that applies a frequency spectrum of alternating current likely acting on sodium channels (Chaieb et al., 2015; Schoen and Fromherz, 2008). Electrical current applied transcutaneously, for example, with auricular or cervical tVNS can affect cortical processing likely via modulation of brainstem activity, autonomic nervous system activity, and perhaps changes in cortical excitability (Capone et al., 2015). These distributed effects on neuronal activity can produce a broad range of behavioral effects in both clinical and non-clinical participants (Bestmann et al., 2015; Brunoni et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2021), including faster reaction times and/or improved accuracy on cognitive and motor tasks, and improved spatial working memory performance. Thus, ES holds potential for improving performance in military domains including aviation, training, and operations. In a series of comprehensive reviews on enhancement research for military applications, tES is identified as a promising method for altering cognitive function in military personnel in addition to other interventions, for example, augmented reality, mindfulness training, and sleep modification (Brunyé et al., 2020; Davis and Smith, 2019; Feltman et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2022; Peltier et al., 2019). Research using tES to target the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), medial temporal lobes, fusiform gyrus, and frontopolar regions have shown beneficial effects on cognitive functions ranging from vigilance and threat detection to executive function, face memory, and creative problem solving (Brunyé et al., 2017; Koizumi et al., 2020; McKinley et al., 2012). Despite these initial promising results, overarching conclusions from these reviews and others (including meta-analyses) consistently point to equivocal results across published research and a need to better understand a multitude of outstanding questions (see Table 1) (de Berker et al., 2013; Brunoni et al., 2012; Horvath et al., 2014, 2015, 2016; Imburgio and Orr, 2018; Paulus, 2014; Prehn and Flöel, 2015). These outstanding questions generally cover topics related to underlying mechanisms, experimental methodology, task-related outcomes, short-and long-term effects, adverse effects, individual differences, ethics and regulation, and generalizability of laboratory findings to military contexts and tasks. Table 1 www.frontiersin.org Table 1. Outstanding research questions to guide continuing research and development with ES, with an emphasis on eventual military applications. A recent systematic review of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) effects on performance enhancement in military contexts examined 34 articles published between 2008 and 2018 (Feltman et al., 2019). This review was restricted to randomized controlled experimental designs with military-age (18–50 years) healthy non-clinical samples. Most examined articles (26 of 34) reported some positive effects of tDCS on cognitive performance, including executive function (2), learning (6), creativity and cognitive flexibility (2), perception and attention (8), memory (3), and working memory (7). Based on the results of the review, the authors suggest promise for tES, and tDCS in particular, imparting positive effects on cognitive functions with applicability to military contexts. The present systematic review was conducted to update the most recent review (Feltman et al., 2019). We identified articles using military personnel and/or military outcome tasks published in 2019–2024. We assessed whether the identified studies adequately addressed any of the questions posed in Table 1. We first briefly summarize the prospective application of ES in military training and operations, and some of the challenges in realizing this goal. We then discuss the questions posed in Table 1 and detail the methodology and results of our systematic review. 2 Cognitive performance in military contexts Cognitive performance is a critical factor responsible for successes and failures during military training and operations with cognitive decrements estimated to account for the majority (80–85%) of accidents during military training and operations (Thomas and Russo, 2007). Many core cognitive functions are therefore foundational to the successful performance of a broad range of military tasks. The cognitive tasks demanded of military personnel vary widely as a function of military occupational specialization and level of responsibility introduced by ascending rank (echelon). According to an international expert consensus panel, critical among those cognitive functions are attention and vigilance, processing speed, cognitive control (performance monitoring, response selection, inhibition, goal selection/updating/maintenance), shifting, self-knowledge, visual perception, and understanding others’ mental states (Albertella et al., 2023). Examples of tactical-level military tasks critically involving each of these cognitive functions are detailed in Table 2. ----------- One unique aspect of military training and operations is that they are conducted under high levels of cognitive and physical stress, energy imbalance, sleep loss, dehydration, and thermal burden (Adler et al., 2004; Brunyé et al., 2021; Campbell and Nobel, 2009). Many of these states independently and interactively produce acute impairments of cognitive function (Brunyé et al., 2021; Flood and Keegan, 2022; Lieberman et al., 2002, 2005, 2006, 2009; Orasanu and Backer, 1996; Vartanian et al., 2018). For example, the psychological stress imposed during combat-like training of elite military units is associated with impairments of attention and vigilance, memory, and reasoning (Lieberman et al., 2005). Sleep loss slows processing speed and lengthens reaction times, lowers task accuracy, and negatively influences moral decision making (Good et al., 2020; Petrofsky et al., 2022). Calorie deprivation causes decrements in executive function (Giles et al., 2019) (but also (see Lieberman et al., 2008)); dehydration impairs executive function, attention, and motor skills (Wittbrodt and Millard-Stafford, 2018); and both cold and heat stress negatively influence higher-level cognitive functions (Martin et al., 2019). Given that ES may hold potential for improving performance in each of these cognitive functions, it is explored as a tool to remediate cognitive decrements induced by the physical and cognitive demands of military training and operations. As such, some studies using ES interventions examine effects under conditions of relative stress and adversity, complementing basic research done in relatively comfortable settings. 3 Outstanding questions for research and application In Table 1, we posed a series of questions valuable for guiding continuing research examining the prospective application of ES to military contexts and tasks. We briefly summarize each question below, and then detail the methods and results of our systematic review. A more exhaustive list of outstanding questions is included in the Discussion section, broadly motivating continuing research and application. 3.1 Question 1: can ES effects on performance in laboratory contexts generalize to realistic and complex military tasks? The generalizability of human sciences, particularly in the domain of human performance, offers both opportunities and challenges when transitioning from basic research to applied military settings (Blacker et al., 2019; Goodwin et al., 2018; Hedrick et al., 1993; Shenberger-Trujillo and Kurinec, 2016). Basic research provides a foundational and mechanistic understanding of human behavior, cognition, and performance, which can inform application to military contexts such as training and operations. The perceptual, cognitive, and affective processes responsible for executing laboratory tasks are foundational, theoretically underlying the performance of any cognitive task, in any context. Basic research therefore enables the development of broadly applicable strategies for adopting new tools and technologies. However, challenges arise in transferring discoveries made in basic research to diverse real-world scenarios. With respect to military applications, there are inherent contextual differences between controlled laboratory environments and complex military operations, inter-and intra-individual variability in human performance, operational constraints such as high-stress environments, and security concerns regarding the application of susceptible technologies to potentially vulnerable populations of military personnel (Blacker et al., 2019; Hedrick et al., 1993; Niemeyer, 2009). It is important to conduct high-powered research in military settings, with military personnel, using military tasks and relevant performance outcomes. Addressing these challenges necessitates interdisciplinary collaboration among researchers, military professionals, and policymakers to ensure that insights from basic research are effectively translated into practical applications while considering the unique complexities of military training and operations. For example, while tDCS targeting the DLPFC shows promise for improving outcomes on abstract working memory tasks performed in laboratory settings, does it improve outcomes in relatively demanding and dynamic contexts with challenging and highly applied tasks (e.g., processing and manipulating verbal and spatial information in the context of tactical communications)? The relatively small effect sizes seen on the aggregate when examining links between tES and cognitive performance (Brunoni and Vanderhasselt, 2014; Hill et al., 2016; Horvath et al., 2015) could suggest it is unlikely to affect performance on relatively variable tasks performed in noisy contexts. Similarly, the promising effects of combining tES with working memory training may or may not transfer to similar tasks performed outside of a laboratory context. It has indeed been challenging to find evidence for such transfer within the laboratory itself (Brunoni and Vanderhasselt, 2014; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Pergher et al., 2022). 3.2 Question 2: what are the frequency and intensity of acute and/or long-term adverse effects? Acute adverse effects of ES administration include those occurring during or immediately after stimulation (Antal et al., 2017). An early systematic review of tDCS-associated adverse effects (Brunoni et al., 2011) found the most frequently reported effects compared to sham to be itching (39.3% vs. 32.9%), tingling (22.2% vs. 18.3%), a burning sensation at the electrode site(s) (8.7% vs. 10%), headache (14.8% vs. 16.2%), and discomfort (10.4% vs. 13.4%). However, the reporting of adverse events was generally inadequate and likely biased, limiting the ability to effectively assess their frequency, intensity, and presence across experimental conditions. A more recent review found that most adverse effects of tDCS are mild, not considered serious, and short-lived, but that relatively prolonged adverse effects can also occur—namely skin lesions; and mania or hypomania primarily in patients with depression. Similarly, these adverse events were inconsistently reported and the authors suggest that further investigations are needed to characterize their type, frequency, intensity, and duration (Matsumoto and Ugawa, 2017). A systematic review of tVNS found the most common adverse effects to be local skin irritation from electrode placement (18.2%), headache (3.6%), and nasopharyngitis (1.7%), with a minority (2.6%) dropping out of the studies due to tolerability. Stimulation was not accounted for in the heterogeneity of effects from these studies as many of the studies did not report all parameters (Redgrave et al., 2018). A more recent systematic review and meta-analysis of auricular tVNS reported that half of the studies did not disclose whether adverse effects were recorded. The most frequently reported adverse effects were ear pain, headache, and tingling. Overall, there were no differences in the risk of adverse effects following auricular tVNS when compared to controls. There appears to be no causal relationship between taVNS and severe adverse events (Kim et al., 2022). ------------- 3.3 Question 3: what are the effects of repeated ES administration on tolerability, brain structure and function, and behavior? A large systematic review and meta-analysis on tolerability found that higher levels of tDCS exposure through repeated administration (typically separated by 1 day) do not increase the incidence or intensity of adverse events, and did not vary across clinical and non-clinical groups (Nikolin et al., 2018, 2019). An additional study examining five tDCS sessions within a 25-h period found no serious adverse events, but did report mild adverse effects including scalp erythema, tingling and burning sensation at the electrode site, and a transient metallic taste (Zappasodi et al., 2018). The effect of repeated tDCS assessed with neuroimaging has yielded variable results. No metabolite changes are observed during magnetic resonance spectroscopy following five tDCS sessions within 25-h periods (Zappasodi et al., 2018). Similarly, no change in blood-based metabolic biomarkers indicative of neuronal atrophy are observed following five tDCS sessions (Kortteenniemi et al., 2020). In contrast, three sessions of prefrontal tDCS were found to increase resting cerebral profusion in the locus coeruleus that persisted across sessions of active stimulation (Sherwood et al., 2021). Another study examining three sessions of prefrontal tDCS showed highly variable effects on resting-state functional connectivity that resulted in extremely low intra-participant reliability. Interestingly, intra-participant reliability was relatively high in a sham condition, suggesting that tDCS exerts markedly different functional effects across sessions, i.e., dose dependent effects (Wörsching et al., 2017). Moreover, low intra-individual variability is observed in tDCS-induced motor evoked potentials over the course of three sessions, suggesting a general lack of habituation (Ammann et al., 2017). These studies suggest that effects of repeated tDCS administration are very difficult to predict within and across individuals. While preliminary evidence suggests that repeated tDCS administration is safe and tolerable, this is far from exhaustive, and more research is needed to understand how higher exposures (intensity, duration, frequency) and other types of ES affect tolerability, brain, and behavior. Much remains unknown about the chronic risk profile of ES. With the proliferation of ES devices onto the open consumer market, this is a particularly important question to consider. While laboratory studies with humans might typically consider the effects of 3–5 sessions, home users of do-it-yourself consumer devices can administer ES multiple times a day for months or years, resulting in over 100 sessions of self-administered ES (Jwa, 2015; Wexler, 2016, 2018; Wexler and Reiner, 2017, 2019). In addition to skin lesions and burns reported by home users, there are potential long-term effects of repeated exposures to direct ES of the scalp, skull, meninges, and cortex. Additional insights can be gathered from clinical trials involving multi-session tDCS administration over the course of days and weeks. For example, when examining patients with bipolar depression, Sampai-Junior and colleagues demonstrated no difference in rates of adverse events between sham and active groups after 12 daily sessions over 6 weeks (at 2 mA for 30 min), but noted some evidence for increased reports of localized skin redness in the active group (Sampaio-Junior et al., 2018). Similar findings were noted in a clinical trial examining the effect of repeated tDCS (21 sessions, 2 mA for 30 min) in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD), demonstrating no differences between groups in the frequency or severity of adverse events, while noting increased rates of local skin redness and heat or burning sensations in the active group (Borrione et al., 2024). While these results are compelling, it will be important to understand not only subject experiences but also potential effects on biomarkers of neuronal integrity over the course of dozens or hundreds of sessions. 4 Systematic review method Herein we describe our search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessments. The full PRISMA diagram can be found in Figure 1. Figure 1 --------------- The authors conclude that there is an urgent need for research to parametrically manipulate and probe independent and interactive effects across relatively complex parameter spaces. 6.1.3 Understanding effects of individual differences How do individual differences influence ES effects? The effects of individual differences on ES-related outcomes have been examined in three primary ways. First, studies have examined how individual differences in brain structural and functional characteristics affect physiological and behavioral responses to ES. For example, individual differences in prefrontal cortical thickness influence tDCS effects on decision-making (Filmer et al., 2019). Additionally, tDCS-induced changes in resting-state functional connectivity are associated with differences in visual object-matching task performance (Pupíková et al., 2022). Secondly, studies have examined how individual differences in personality traits affect physiological and behavioral responses to tES (Brunyé et al., 2014, 2015; Krause and Cohen Kadosh, 2014). For example, tDCS affects reading speed of social sentences in readers with low scores on the behavioral approach and inhibition scales, but not those with high scores (Reyes et al., 2021); and trait anxiety modulates the effects of tDCS on creative task performance (Xiang et al., 2021). Third, studies have examined how individual differences in baseline knowledge or task proficiency affect physiological and behavioral responses to ES (Splittgerber et al., 2020). For example, tDCS increases the creativity of improvised instrument play for novices but harms expert performance (Rosen et al., 2016); and those with lower baseline reading proficiency show greater positive effects of tDCS on cross-language speech production (Bhattacharjee et al., 2020). Given the inherent heterogeneity of military personnel, the effects of relatively invariant individual characteristics is an important research topic. Individually tailored paradigms are likely needed, factoring in complex interacting variables (e.g., stimulating parameters, physiological, anatomical, and genetic differences). Personalized protocols do however raise challenges in a military setting, such as time constraints and practicalities. Recent research has further demonstrated large intra-individual variability in responses to repeat sessions of tDCS in that individuals did not respond consistently to tDCS when applied repeatedly over time (Willmot et al., 2024). 6.1.4 Quantifying enhancement beyond baseline functioning Can ES support and optimize performance, or does it truly enhance performance beyond baseline functioning? While the notion of cognitive enhancement is intriguing (Bostrom and Sandberg, 2009; Farah, 2015; Farah et al., 2014), it is challenging to truly demonstrate enhancement as opposed to performance sustainment or optimization, per se (Brunyé et al., 2020). Several philosophical positions conceptualize that enhancement must improve functioning of an individual beyond their normal range (Agar, 2013; Menuz et al., 2013). True enhancement would transcend the biological limits shaped by millennia of evolution—defining such biological limits will be critical, both within and across individuals. Demonstrating true enhancement requires quantitatively establishing baselines of an individual’s optimal biological performance potential under optimal conditions. For example, under an idealized set of hypothetical conditions, what could an individual achieve for reaction times, accuracy levels, or any other outcome of interest? Only when biotechnology-induced performance exceeds what has been established as innate optimal performance can it truly be deemed enhancement. In most cases, including when ES mitigates the performance deleterious effects of a contextual factor (e.g., sleep deprivation, stress, fatigue) (Hart-Pomerantz et al., 2024), performance is being sustained or optimized relative to a control condition that attempts to mimic some aspects of active experimental conditions (e.g., sham procedures with ES). These are important empirical comparisons, but they may not allow us to quantify the biological limits of performance or make inferences about enhancement. Moreover, military personnel might already be at their performance upper limit due to their training, limiting the effectiveness of ES. For example some tDCS studies in military samples did not observe any additional performance benefits (Blacker et al., 2020; Willmot et al., 2023). Visual search is required in many professions where an undetected threat, such as a weapon, can put the well-being of others at risk. Given the importance of detecting these threats, researchers have used various experimental techniques to improve performance in visual search tasks, albeit with varying degrees of success. Here, we explore two promising techniques to improve visual search using ecologically valid synthetic aperture radar stimuli: object recognition training and search strategy training. Search strategy training is intended to make observers search more systematically through a display, whereas object recognition training is intended to improve observers’ ability to recognize critical targets. Search strategy training was implemented by instructing participants to scan through the display in a pre-specified pattern. Object recognition training was implemented by having participants discriminate between targets and non-targets. We also manipulated whether observers received anodal or sham transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) during training, which has been shown to improve visual search performance and target learning. To measure the effectiveness of the training and stimulation conditions, we tested object recognition accuracy and overall visual search performance before and after three sessions of increasingly difficult training. Results indicated that object recognition training significantly improved object recognition accuracy relative to the search strategy group, whereas search strategy training was effective in improving visual search accuracy in those who adhered to the training. However, tDCS did not interact with training type, and although both training types yielded significant improvements, training-related improvements were not significantly different between the different approaches. This evidence suggests that strategy-based training could be as effective as the more prototypical object recognition training. Moreover, interactions between baseline performance and tDCS effectiveness have been demonstrated (Splittgerber et al., 2020). Whether ES can further improve performance in high performing individuals remains an open question. ----------- Author contributions OG: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SR: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. NW: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Investigation. MM: Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. ET: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. TB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition, Supervision. Funding The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Personnel time to support OG, SR, NW, and TB was funded by the authors’ respective institutions. MM and ET were funded by the U. S. Army DEVCOM Soldier Center via grant W911QY-19–2–0003 awarded to Tufts University. Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision. Publisher’s note All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. Author disclaimer The views expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not reflect the official policies or positions of the Department of Army, the Department of Defense, or any other department or agency of the U.S. government. 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Mem. 179:107398. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107398 PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar Keywords: human performance, transcranial electrical stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation, transcranial alternating current stimulation, military, peripheral nerve stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation Citation: van der Groen O, Rafique SA, Willmot N, Murphy MG, Tisnovsky E and Brunyé TT (2025) Transcutaneous and transcranial electrical stimulation for enhancing military performance: an update and systematic review. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 19:1501209. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1501209 Received: 24 September 2024; Accepted: 12 February 2025; Published: 03 March 2025. Edited by: Jorge Leite, Portucalense University, Portugal Reviewed by: Alexander Hunold, Ilmenau University of Technology, Germany Jiahua Xu, University of Tübingen, Germany *Correspondence: Tad T. Brunyé, Thaddeus.t.Brunye.civ@army.mil ----------- https://our.utah.edu/research-opportunity/spur-2026-enhancing-memory-consolidation-during-sleep-with-targeted-memory-reactivation/ SPUR 2026: Enhancing Memory Consolidation During Sleep with Targeted Memory Reactivation Go back to Database Faculty Mentor: Bradley King Title: Assistant Professor College: Health School / Department: Health, Kinesiology, and Recreation Email: bradley.ross.king@utah.edu Project description The human brain has a fascinating ability to form new memories. These new memories undergo consolidation, the process by which the newly acquired memories become more robust and are stored for the long-term. There is now consistent evidence that sleep plays a critical role in this consolidation process. Recent research has also shown that consolidation can be augmented by experimental interventions such as targeted memory reactivation (TMR) applied during post-learning sleep. In TMR protocols, sensory stimuli (e.g. sounds) that are associated to the learned material during the learning episode are presented during sleep to reactivate the encoded memory trace. This memory reinstatement is thought to be supported by the reactivation of the brain patterns associated with the learning episode. However, the neurophysiological processes supporting these effects have been scarcely studied. Therefore, the goal of the present study is to elucidate the neurophysiological processes supporting memory reactivation during sleep which underlie enhancement in memory consolidation. To do so, we will use sequence learning as a study model as it underlies several daily activities in both memory domains (e.g., memorizing vs. typing a phone number). We will analyze electrophysiological (EEG) data in real-time to reactivate memories during sleep (nap) and to reveal the neurophysiological processes supporting memory reactivation. In summary, this project will employ state-of-the-art electrophysiological and reactivation approaches to examine the following intriguing question with clinical, educational and fundamental implications: Can memories be reactivated during sleep to boost the consolidation processes? Student Role: It is our ambition to provide the students with a wide range of research-related activities. Our goal is not only to showcase what the life of a researcher looks like in the laboratory, but also to train the students to become researchers. We therefore believe that our students should be involved in all parts of the research project. Specifically, after being introduced to the relevant concepts related to the project (literature reading), students will be involved in the discussion for the development of the study design (behavioral and EEG design) as well as in the piloting of the newly developed design. After this initial phase, the students will be involved in the recruitment of study participants and the collection of both the behavioral and sleep (nap) EEG data associated to the project. Last, the students will be trained to perform behavioral and EEG analyses in order to present preliminary results related to their internship at the OUR summer symposium. We also would like our students to be fully part of the daily activities of the research team and will encourage them to attend our weekly lab meetings and journal reading discussions. Student Benefits: This undergraduate research opportunity will provide a student with extensive experience in human subjects research in the domain of neuroscience. Specifically, the student will: Receive training in research ethics and good clinical practices in human subjects research. Learn how to interact with scientific collaborators and research participants. Learn the foundations of scripting in software commonly used for data processing and statistical analyses (e.g., MATLAB). Learn basic principles of behavioral data analyses (performance speed and accuracy on memory tasks). Learn basic principles of sleep EEG approaches. Become familiar with procedures for the acquisition of sleep (nap) EEG data. Learn basic principles of EEG analytical approaches. Gain experience with project/results presentations and scientific writing. These outcomes and experiences offer an ideal mix of research domain-general skills (i.e., ethics, scripting, writing, presentation) and domain-specific skills (i.e., acquisition and analyses of behavioral and brain imaging data). This will ultimately provide the student with an excellent foundation to pursue graduate training and/or a career in science, and in cognitive neuroscience in particular. Project Duration: 10-weeks in summer 2026, May 18-July 31, 2026. Opportunity Type: Research Assistant Opportunity Location Type: In Person Is this a paid opportunity: Yes Paid Description: $5,000 stipend disbursed throughout the 10-week program. Minimum Requirements: Must be a degree-seeking, matriculated undergraduate student in the Fall 2025 semester (beginning or continuing college career in Fall 2025 and not graduating before December 2026; concurrent enrollment while in high school does not meet this eligibility requirement). Applicants do not need to be a University of Utah student (SPUR is nationally competitive - you may be a student from an institution across the country, including a community college). How To Apply: Visit this link for more information and to submit an application. Deadline to apply is January 25th, 2026 11:59PM (MT) ------------------- https://www.darpa.mil/research/programs/restore-reengineering-enabling-sleep RESTORE: Reengineering Enabling Sleep Transitions in Operationally Restrictive Environments Summary The Reengineering Enabling Sleep Transitions in Operationally Restrictive Environments (RESTORE) program aims to demonstrate precision control of sleep macro- and micro-architectures to optimize cognitive performance following 3-hour sleep restriction commonly occurring in combat operations. Current civilian treatments are predicated on helping an individual with a sleep disorder achieve healthy, normative sleep by reducing time to sleep onset and awakenings during sleep and with a goal of achieving a fully restorative 7- to 8-hour night sleep. Service members’ responsibilities frequently result in less than 3 hours of sleep during combat and less than 6 hours during regular duty. RESTORE will test the potential for recent advancements in non-invasive neuromodulation technologies and understanding of the importance of sleep micro-architectures to increase sleep efficiency for maintenance of cognitive performance under sleep-restricted conditions commonly faced by warfighters. ------------- https://www.media.mit.edu/publications/targeted-dream-incubation-at-sleep-onset-increases-post-sleep-creative-performance/ leep onset increases post-sleep creative performance Research March 13, 2023 Topics #creativity #sleep People Adam Haar Horowitz Former Postdoctoral Associate Kathleen Esfahany Tomas Vega Galvez Former Research Assistant Pattie Maes Professor of Media Technology; Germeshausen Professor Projects Dormio: Interfacing with Dreams Targeted Dream Incubation Groups Share this publication Publication Targeted dream incubation at sleep onset increases post-sleep creative performance Horowitz*, A.H., Esfahany*, K., Gálvez, T.V. et al. Targeted dream incubation at sleep onset increases post-sleep creative performance. Sci Rep 13, 7319 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31361-w Abstract The link between dreams and creativity has been a topic of intense speculation. Recent scientific findings suggest that sleep onset (known as N1) may be an ideal brain state for creative ideation. However, the specific link between N1 dream content and creativity has remained unclear. To investigate the contribution of N1 dream content to creative performance, we administered targeted dream incubation (a protocol that presents auditory cues at sleep onset to introduce specific themes into dreams) and collected dream reports to measure incorporation of the selected theme into dream content. We then assessed creative performance using a set of three theme-related creativity tasks. Our findings show enhanced creative performance and greater semantic distance in task responses following a period of N1 sleep as compared to wake, corroborating recent work identifying N1 as a creative sweet spot and offering novel evidence for N1 enabling a cognitive state with greater associative divergence. We further demonstrate that successful N1 dream incubation enhances creative performance more than N1 sleep alone. To our knowledge, this is the first controlled experiment investigating a direct role of incubating dream content in the enhancement of creative performance. ----------- https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/sleep/articles/10.3389/frsle.2024.1258345/full Targeted dream incubation at a distance: the development of a remote and sensor-free tool for incubating hypnagogic dreams and mind-wandering Lucas Bellaiche &#x;Lucas Bellaiche1*†Adam Haar Horowitz,,&#x;Adam Haar Horowitz2,3,4†Mason McClayMason McClay5Ryan BottaryRyan Bottary6Dan DenisDan Denis7Christina ChenChristina Chen2Pattie MaesPattie Maes2Paul SeliPaul Seli1 Hypnagogia—the transitional state between wakefulness and sleep—is marked by “hypnagogic dreams,” during which our brains tend to forge connections among concepts that are otherwise unrelated. This process of creating novel associations during hypnagogic dreams is said to contribute to enhancing creativity, learning, and memory. Recently, researchers have proposed that mind-wandering—a form of spontaneous thought that is freely moving and characterized by transitioning thought content—might be subserved by processes similar to those engaged during hypnagogia, and may serve similar creative functions. However, to date, the relationship between hypnagogia and mind-wandering remains poorly understood, which is likely due in part to the fact that research into hypnagogia requires time-consuming, cumbersome, and costly polysomnography. In light of this, the present study had two primary aims: first, to test a novel tool—called Dormio Light—for cueing and indexing hypnagogic dream content in a cost- and time-effective manner, with the ability for remote administration; second, to use this tool to examine any relations between hypnagogic dreams and mind-wandering (defined as “freely moving thought”). Participants (N = 80, with 34 females) completed a task in which our tool prompted them to engage in hypnagogia and, separately, mind-wandering, with instructions to think about a common everyday object (Tree or Fork) while experiencing these cognitive states. Following each state, participants reported thought content and completed phenomenological questionnaires. Providing an initial validation of our tool, we successfully cued hypnagogic and mind-wandering thought content that was specific to our cues (e.g., Tree), with our incubation-rate results comparable to those found in laboratory-based studies. Further, we found evidence for some phenomenological differences between hypnagogia and mind-wandering reports. Our study offers a novel, cost- and time-effective tool with which to remotely cue and index hypnagogia and mind-wandering, and sheds light on the relationship between hypnagogia and mind-wandering, thereby providing future directions for research into these two cognitive states. Introduction In recent years, there has been a surge of psychological research into different states of human consciousness. Here, we concentrate on two such manifestations of consciousness: hypnagogia and freely moving thought (a particular type of mind-wandering). Hypnagogia, also known as Stage N1, refers to the transitional state from wakefulness to sleep, where one may experience a diverse array of sensory phenomena, including auditory or visual hallucinations, lucid dreams (Mota-Rolim et al., 2015), or even a sense of falling or floating. Hypnagogia is characterized by spontaneous dreams—“hypnagogic dreams”—during which our brains tend to forge novel connections between otherwise semantically disparate concepts (Schacter, 1976; Ghibellini and Meier, 2023). On the other hand, freely moving thought (FMT; a type of mind-wandering) refers to a cognitive state, experienced during waking life, wherein people's thoughts make frequent transitions across semantically unrelated content (Mills et al., 2018). The present study had two primary aims: Firstly, to develop and validate an innovative tool that would allow for cuing and capturing thought content during hypnagogic and FMT states. Secondly, to identify and then compare and contrast the characteristics of thoughts individuals encounter within these two cognitive states. A new tool for cueing and capturing hypnagogic and mind-wandering thought content Recently, researchers have shown increasing interest in Targeted Dream Incubation (TDI), a technique that involves the presentation of auditory cues during hypnagogia to introduce specific themes into people's hypnagogic dreams (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020). Much of the interest in TDI has stemmed from the potential of this technique to be utilized to enhance creative problem-solving and learning. Indeed, it has been speculated that by guiding the dreaming mind toward particular content, researchers might be able to facilitate the forging of novel connections between otherwise disparate concepts—a process critical to creativity (Haar Horowitz et al., 2023; see also Lacaux et al., 2021). To provide a foundation for research on TDI in hypnagogia, Haar Horowitz et al. (2020) developed a novel TDI tool, Dormio, which is a wearable electronic glove that indexes heart rate, muscle flexion, and electrodermal activity to identify the onset of hypnagogia. Once a hypnagogic state is identified, Dormio can then be utilized to deliver auditory cues which influence dream content and later can prompt and record dream reports. Utilizing this tool, Haar Horowitz et al. (2023) recently found that TDI used to incubate dreams on a specific topic can significantly increase post-sleep creativity on tasks related to that topic. However, while it has been established that Dormio is effective in cueing and indexing hypnagogic dream content (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020, 2023), research implementing Dormio can be difficult to conduct. Indeed, the Dormio glove is custom-made and few devices exist; these sensitive devices can break, and at-home studies can suffer from delays. Moreover, collecting a large-data sample is limited by the production of hardware and lack of large-scale manufacturing of dream incubation devices. Given the resource-demanding nature of using Dormio hardware, here, we sought to develop a modified version of Dormio that is software-based only (which we refer henceforth as “Dormio Light”) and would (a) remove the need for time-consuming, in-person procedures, (b) eliminate the requirement for hardware used to identify the onset of hypnagogia, (c) allow for remote cueing and indexing of hypnagogic dream content (e.g., via online data-collection platforms such as Prolific and Mechanical Turk), and (d) permit expedited data collection. To this end, we created Dormio Light, an online platform that induces specific dream content via TDI on a laptop's web browser. TDI incubates dream content using timed prompts that remind participants of their dream cue and prompt dream reports at appropriate times in the sleep cycle (see Methods). Crucially, because Dormio Light does not require hardware outside of a personal computer, this online platform permits researchers to use crowdsourcing websites to—for the first time in dream research to our knowledge—achieve large and same-day data collection. Given the methodological barriers (see Escourrou et al., 2000; Burgdorf et al., 2018; Topalidis et al., 2023) that constrain dream studies to small sample sizes (e.g., 50 participants in Haar Horowitz et al., 2023), such a development in remote dream research could provide important future research opportunities. While the primary motivation behind the creation of Dormio Light was to streamline research into hypnagogia, it is important to consider the potential utility of this tool in cueing and subsequently incubating mind-wandering, specifically FMT. To our knowledge, the cueing of FMT has not yet been the subject of empirical investigation. Nonetheless, such cueing is of potential importance for a few reasons. Firstly, akin to research on targeted dream incubation, the cueing of FMT could unveil critical insights into the processes underlying FMT phenomenology, including its onset and flow. Indeed, one drawback of typical mind-wandering research, including that which uses experience-sampling methodologies, is the lack of identification of the “ignition point,” as raised by Smallwood (2013). In other words, “it is difficult to separate those processes that acted as the imperative event from the processes that are concerned with how those thoughts are sustained” (p. 521, 522). With a cueing procedure, as in the present study, this concern is largely eliminated by providing standardized “ignition points.” Additionally, Dormio Light could be deployed to minimally guide the content explored during FMT, potentially serving as a mechanism to foster creativity and problem-solving skills during these wakeful states. Phenomenological comparisons across hypnagogia and mind-wandering Beyond developing a novel tool for guiding and capturing thoughts occurring during hypnagogia and periods of FMT, we were interested in examining the possible similarities and differences in thought content produced during these two states. On the one hand, there is reason to suspect some overlap in the content of thought across hypnagogia and FMT. Indeed, both states are characterized by cognitions that are relatively unconstrained and highly fluid (Perogamvros et al., 2017; Mills et al., 2018; Quercia et al., 2018; Andrillon et al., 2019), and it is therefore plausible that the thoughts engaged during these two states will have some commonalities. Moreover, recent research has found that both states are associated with enhanced creativity (Lacaux et al., 2021; Irving et al., 2022; Haar Horowitz et al., 2023)—presumably because the lack of constraint that is characteristic of these states allows for novel links to be drawn between different concepts—suggesting the possibility that there are similarities in thought content produced during each state. On the other hand, these two states are associated with distinct cognitive processes and experiences that should be expected to produce some differences in terms of thought content. Perhaps the most obvious difference in this respect is that, whereas hypnagogia occurs during a transitional period between wakefulness and sleep, FMT occur exclusively during wakefulness, when one's awareness of one's thoughts is presumably greater than during hypnagogia. Moreover, whereas hypnagogia often includes more dream-like or hallucinatory experiences (Schacter, 1976; Ghibellini and Meier, 2023), FMT do not appear to have such phenomenological characteristics. Importantly, these two states likely exist on a continuum of cognitive control (as implied by the continuity hypothesis of dreaming; Schredl and Hofmann, 2003; see Sodré et al., 2023), with hypnagogia representing a state of reduced control and increased immersion in internally generated experiences, and FMT reflecting a state of reduced, but still present, control over thought content. However, to date, no research has directly compared the thought phenomenology across these two states. Thus, here, to shed light on the similarities and differences between thought content produced during hypnagogia and FMT, we indexed the characteristics of thoughts reported while participants experienced hypnagogia and, separately, FMT, via a thought-report questionnaire adopted from Smallwood et al. (2016) and Gross et al. (2020) that indexes several features of thought content and structure (e.g., Emotionality, Novelty, Topical Shifting, Meaningfulness). Given the exploratory nature of these comparisons, we do not report any specific hypotheses. The current study Here, we used Dormio Light to provide timed prompts via the Targeted Dream Incubation (TDI) method to cue specific thought content for both hypnagogic dream states and FMT. Methodologically, we sought to validate our novel remote method by assessing incorporation rates of cued items (i.e., how many thought reports referenced the cued item) and compare them to similar in-person studies that utilized the Dormio glove (e.g., Haar Horowitz et al., 2020, 2023). In addition, we compared thought content—indexed via typed thought reports and responses to a thought-content questionnaire—to assess potential differences and similarities in thought profile across periods of hypnagogia and FMT. Methods The following study was approved by Duke University Campus Institutional Review Board (2021–0422). Participants Participants were recruited through Prolific, an online crowdsourcing platform that offers paid research studies to users worldwide. Eligibility criteria required participants to be at least 18 years old, fluent in English, residents of the United States, and have a minimum 90% approval rating from previous studies on Prolific. Additionally, participants needed to have completed at least 50 Prolific studies previously. For compatibility with the study's website, participants were also required to use Google Chrome as their web browser. In total, we recruited 132 participants who met the Prolific requirements listed above. Given the exploratory nature of the study, we did not conduct any a priori power analyses, but we did aim to surpass sample sizes from previous cued-mind-wandering paradigms (e.g., McVay and Kane, 2013, reported between 57 and 67 participants in each of their experiments) and cued-hypnagogia studies (Haar Horowitz et al., 2020, 2023: 50 participants). However, given the novel remote methodology, we wanted to ensure that we analyzed data only from people who followed instructions completely and for whom the hypnagogic and FMT cueing worked effectively. Accordingly, we employed strict analysis inclusion criteria such that participants had to self-report (a) having stayed completely awake without any intervening sleep during the FMT task—which may be more common than expected, as reported in Tagliazucchi and Laufs (2014) and Andrillon et al. (2019)—and (b) having experienced some level of sleep (“fully” or “halfway”) during the hypnagogia task. Excluding data from participants who did not meet both of these stringent criteria, we report results from analyses examining data from 80 participants (Mage = 36.01, SDage = 12.42; female = 34), which is above the target sample size and relatively high in power given the within-subjects design. We compensated participants $24.00 for an average experiment length of 2.6 hours. Dormio Light website We guided participants to a website entitled “Dormio Light” for thought incubation, awakenings, and verbal reports. For interested readers, the Dormio Light website can be found at: https://christinatchen.github.io/dormio/timer.html. Participants completed both conditions (hypnagogic dreaming, FMT) separately in a randomized order via this website. Written instructions and pre-recorded video instructions in the Qualtrics survey prompted participants to enter, in the Dormio Light website, their Prolific ID, the object about which they were instructed to dream/mind-wander (randomly assigned by Qualtrics as either Fork or Tree), and to record audio messages in their own voices that the website would replay throughout the assigned condition. The self-recorded audio messages were (1) an incubation message (“Remember to think of a Fork/Tree”) intermittently played throughout the condition, and (2) a report message (“Tell me what is going through your mind”) that played four times across the condition prompting a verbal report of the participant's current thoughts. Research has indicated audio played during sleep in one's own voice can effectively incubate dream content (Castaldo and Holzman, 1967). Thus, here, we chose to test our tool using participants' own voices in order to make our tool as flexible as possible for at-home experimental use in the future. Additionally, we instructed participants to enter, in the Dormio Light website, a latency window of time to begin the condition (i.e., preparatory time to fall asleep into hypnagogia or to engage in FMT), after which the website would pick a random time within this window estimate. For instance, in the hypnagogia condition, a participant could enter that it typically takes him/her 10 to 15 min to fall asleep, and the Dormio Light website would present the incubation message after 13 min. This preparatory window of time was freely chosen by the participant given the individual variability that can exist regarding latency to sleep (Carskadon and Dement, 1982). The remainder of the settings were the same for all participants: to stay in hypnagogia/FMT for 3 min, record 4 rounds (i.e., trials) of entry into hypnagogia/FMT and report of thoughts, take 60 s to provide verbal reports as cued by their audio messages, and take 7 min to fall back into sleep/remain in a stable hypnagogia/FMT state following each awakening (see Figure 1). We chose these parameters for several reasons. First, though individual differences exist in sleep behavior, research suggests that hypnagogic dreaming is achieved rather rapidly after sleep onset. In addition, we believed that staying 3 min in each state provided adequate time for descriptive stories without a loss of memory during each of the 4 reports, which can occur if individuals enter N2 (Carr and Solomonova, 2019). Lastly, a short verbal report period allows for capture of cognitive content while mitigating the difficulty in falling back asleep which an increase in arousal during a longer period of awake report might create (Horner et al., 1997). ------- Supplementary material The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frsle.2024.1258345/full#supplementary-material Footnotes 1. ^Some participants used the free-response prompt to also report things unrelated to the content of their thoughts in the condition, including questions about the study, Prolific-specific procedures, bugs they encountered, etc. These mentions were cleaned out. 2. ^Note that the EFA procedure demands continuous variables due to the initial computation of assessing shared variance via correlation; hence the exclusion of items 12 and 13. 3. ^Parallel analyses create simulated data based on the structure and range of the actual data (Horn, 1965). Eigenvalues from this simulated data are compared to those of the actual data and are compared across the range of possible factors. We then retain the number of factors where observed eigenvalues are greater than the simulated eigenvalues, as typically visualized by a scree plot (Sakaluk and Short, 2017); this step provides the number of factors that the observed data best discretize onto. See Supplementary Figures 1, 2. 4. ^These factor analyses–which mirror work by Ruby et al. (2013) and Smallwood et al. (2016) in reference to the FMT loadings of Affect and of Thought Structure, respectively– can motivate new research by inspiring new scales to test such latent factors (as recommended by Ghibellini and Meier, 2023). 5. ^We thank a reviewer for this comment. References Andrillon, T., Windt, J., Silk, T., Drummond, S. P. A., Bellgrove, M. A., and Tsuchiya, N. (2019). Does the mind wander when the brain takes a break? Local sleep in wakefulness, attentional lapses and mind-wandering. 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Biol. 20, 850–855. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.03.027 PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar Keywords: hypnagogia, hypnagogic dreams, mind-wandering, freely moving thought, dream incubation Citation: Bellaiche L, Haar Horowitz A, McClay M, Bottary R, Denis D, Chen C, Maes P and Seli P (2024) Targeted dream incubation at a distance: the development of a remote and sensor-free tool for incubating hypnagogic dreams and mind-wandering. Front. Sleep 3:1258345. doi: 10.3389/frsle.2024.1258345 Received: 13 July 2023; Accepted: 13 May 2024; Published: 28 May 2024. Edited by: Stuart F. Quan, Harvard Medical School, United States Reviewed by: Sérgio Arthuro Mota-Rolim, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil Carlos Schenck, University of Minnesota, United States Copyright © 2024 Bellaiche, Haar Horowitz, McClay, Bottary, Denis, Chen, Maes and Seli. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. *Correspondence: Lucas Bellaiche, lucas.bellaiche@duke.edu ---------- uture work Given the relatively successful implementation of Dormio Light, future research can investigate the experience of, and mechanisms behind, hypnagogia more in-depth. Moreover, the same could be done for research on FMT, which, before this study, lacked a tool with which to effectively cue and capture such thought content. This novel resource, given its experimental ability to control thought content and ignition, can help open a window into the differential (or similar) mechanisms that underly mnemonic and creative effects of these forms of spontaneous thinking. Though the early mind-wandering literature focused on detrimental effects of inattention on cognitive performance and mood (Killingsworth and Gilbert, 2010; Reichle et al., 2010), the newer literature has since emphasized the possible benefits of inattentive mind-wandering including creativity, future-planning, and memory consolidation (Baird et al., 2012; Seli et al., 2018; Dobson and Christoff, 2020). Hypnagogia (and dreaming in general) also shows effects of memory and learning consolidation (Wamsley, 2014; Antrobus and Wamsley, 2017; Barrett, 2017), including across linguistic tasks (De Koninck et al., 1990) and motor coordination tasks (Wamsley et al., 2010; Fogel et al., 2018; Wamsley and Stickgold, 2019). To understand the differential roles of memory systems across forms of spontaneous thoughts like FMT and hypnagogia, Dormio Light lends itself well to memory experiments. For instance, research could present to-be-remembered words during both hypnagogia and FMT as permitted in the audio recordings of the website, and subsequently compare later recollection. The fascinating role of memory and learning in spontaneous thought like mind-wandering and hypnagogia further extend to cognitive processes of creativity and creative problem-solving. Mind-wandering has been investigated as a source of creative incubation and inspiration. For instance, Irving et al. (2022) showed boosted creativity during FMT, the form of mind-wandering investigated in this study, by showing participants a moderately engaging movie clip, during which creative incubation was predicted to occur. Thus, future research could implement Dormio Light to specifically investigate how cue content influences FMT dynamics, thought constraint, and resultant creativity and problem-solving. Meanwhile, hypnagogia has also been shown to afford unique insight in creative problem-solving tasks. In a recent study on mathematical processing during hypnagogia by Lacaux et al. (2021), participants were given equations to solve, but the problems actually had a hidden rule that would immediately provide the answer. Remarkably, 83% of participants who spent at least 15 s in hypnagogia discovered the hidden rule, compared to 30% of those in wakeful mind-wandering and 14% in N2. With Dormio Light, similar research may be carried out remotely across other creative and problem-solving domains at a larger scale. Our use of multiple statistical techniques that converged on general findings also provides possibilities for forays into both additional self-report questionnaires and more automated assessment of dream and FMT content. Regarding the former, given the exploratory thought-probe battery utilized here (though initially adapted from Smallwood et al., 2016 and Gross et al., 2020), our EFA results point toward a more data-driven and targeted comparison of states with fewer items. Future work would thus do well to investigate the latent factors suggested by our data and the factor analyses. Regarding the latter, given the success of the USE text-embedding model, a promising direction for future research is to test differences in the semantic structure across dreaming and other types of mental content. Contemporary language embedding models, such as USE, may be further leveraged to derive differences in dream content for more selective semantic representations, such as similarity to peripheral features (e.g., food rather than fork; the smell of a forest rather than a tree). Furthermore, future research could probe other linguistic relationships, such as causal language, which may be more abstractly represented in dream content. Given that recent research has shown that trait creativity is related to an ability to generate semantically divergent linguistic content (Beaty and Johnson, 2021; Olson et al., 2021), future work might also explore how measures of semantic stability in dream content, such as temporal coherence, might also be related to trait creativity. -------------- https://ftsg.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/FTSG_2025_TR_FINAL_LINKED.pdf -------- https://www.nejatngo.org/en/posts/13636 https://web.archive.org/web/20251104075623/https://www.nejatngo.org/en/posts/13636 The cult of Rajavi Brainwashing as a tool in the MEK cult November 24, 2021 Processes of brainwashing rest on the creation of stress or threat with no escape other than the apparent unsafe haven of the group. This is exactly the atmosphere ruling the MKO members in the group camps formerly in Iraq and in France and Albania now. Self-criticism meetings, permanent supervising of a hierarchical system, mandatory working schedule, sleep deprivation, forced celibacy are all tools to maintain the stressful, threatening structure. This results in a state of terror that causes a dissociative state resulting from a disorganized bond to the leader, or the group as proxy. This way, members are gradually driven to engage in acts they would not have done before their involvement in the totalist system of the cult. For examples, acts of terror, suicide and self-immolation committed by the MKO operatives are numerous in the official history of the group published by different sources including the US State Department, The Human Rights Watch and the RAND Corporation etc. https://www.nejatngo.org/en/posts/14808 MEK leaders use sleep deprivation as a mind control technique February 28, 2023 Sleep deprivation There’s a reason why sleep deprivation is classified as a form of torture and is a common technique employed by destructive cults. They force members to stay awake for extended periods to reduce their subjects’ decision-making ability and make them more open to persuasion. Leaders of the Mujahedin-e Khalq (MEK/ PMOI/ Cult of Rajavi) use this technique to persuade the rank and file to stay inside the suppressive atmosphere of the group. Sleep deprivation and fatigue create disorientation and vulnerability by prolonging mental and physical activity and withholding adequate rest and sleep. Former members of the MEK testify about this form of torture that has been used by the group commanders for over four decades. Sleep deprivation sleep deprivation is classified as a form of torture and is a common technique employed by destructive cults Dr. Massoud Banisadr, former member of the MEK courageously published his autobiography in 2004. The book titled “Destructive and Terrorist Cults, a New Kind of Slavery”, is an inspiring account of his idealistically entry into the MEK, his rise to a high-ranking member of the group, his subjection to brainwashing and his subsequent defection from the group and difficult return to normal life. According to Dr. Banisadr, sleep deprivation is a tactic that is used in the MEK to interfere with brain functions. He notifies that cult members sleep in public dorms where a large number of people sleep by the side of each other. The places are usually noisy and crowded. Members’ rights to have a private room are not respected. “Members are much more deprived of sleep than what the leaders expect,” he writes. Based on his scientific studies, “a person with insomnia, is slow in getting conscious about his or her own psychological conditions. His ability of decision making and acting reduces.” Dr. Banisadr clarifies that sleeping gives the brain the opportunity to organize the information it has got through the day and eventually it provides the brain with the ability to analyze and interpret daily issues. Based on his account, members of the MEK are always deprived from enough sleep. --- web